Deficits in mitochondrial TCA cycle and OXPHOS precede rod photoreceptor degeneration during chronic HIF activation.

BACKGROUND: Major retinal degenerative diseases, including age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and retinal detachment, are associated with a local decrease in oxygen availability causing the formation of hypoxic areas affecting the photoreceptor (PR) cells. Here, we addressed the underlying pathological mechanisms of PR degeneration by focusing on energy metabolism during chronic activation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) in rod PR. METHODS: We used two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) of genetically encoded biosensors delivered by adeno-associated viruses (AAV) to determine lactate and glucose dynamics in PR and inner retinal cells. Retinal layer-specific proteomics, in situ enzymatic assays and immunofluorescence studies were used to analyse mitochondrial metabolism in rod PRs during chronic HIF activation. RESULTS: PRs exhibited remarkably higher glycolytic flux through the hexokinases than neurons of the inner retina. Chronic HIF activation in rods did not cause overt change in glucose dynamics but an increase in lactate production nonetheless. Furthermore, dysregulation of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway (OXPHOS) and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in rods with an activated hypoxic response decelerated cellular anabolism causing shortening of rod photoreceptor outer segments (OS) before onset of cell degeneration. Interestingly, rods with deficient OXPHOS but an intact TCA cycle did not exhibit these early signs of anabolic dysregulation and showed a slower course of degeneration. CONCLUSION: Together, these data indicate an exceeding high glycolytic flux in rods and highlight the importance of mitochondrial metabolism and especially of the TCA cycle for PR survival in conditions of increased HIF activity.

Retinal Layer Separation (ReLayS) method enables the molecular analysis of photoreceptor segments and cell bodies, as well as the inner retina.

Understanding the physiology of the retina, and especially of the highly polarized photoreceptors, is essential not only to broaden our knowledge of the processes required for normal vision, but also to develop effective therapies to prevent or slow retinal degenerative diseases. However, the molecular analysis of photoreceptors is a challenge due to the heterogeneity of the retinal tissue and the lack of easy and reliable methods for cell separation. Here we present the ReLayS method-a simple technique for the separation of photoreceptor segments (PS) containing both inner and outer segments, outer nuclear layer (ONL), and inner retina (InR) that contains the remaining retinal layers. The layer-specific material isolated from a mouse half-retina with the ReLayS method was sufficient for protein isolation and Western blotting or RNA isolation and real-time PCR studies. The separation of PS, ONL, and InR was successfully validated by Western blotting and real-time PCR using proteins and genes with known expression profiles within the retina. Furthermore, the separation of the PS from the ONL enabled the detection of light-driven translocation of transducin from the PS to the soma. ReLayS is a simple and useful method to address protein and possibly metabolites distribution in photoreceptor compartments in various situations including development, ageing, and degenerative diseases.

Single-cell RNA sequencing of the retina in a model of retinitis pigmentosa reveals early responses to degeneration in rods and cones.

BACKGROUND: In inherited retinal disorders such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), rod photoreceptor-specific mutations cause primary rod degeneration that is followed by secondary cone death and loss of high-acuity vision. Mechanistic studies of retinal degeneration are challenging because of retinal heterogeneity. Moreover, the detection of early cone responses to rod death is especially difficult due to the paucity of cones in the retina. To resolve heterogeneity in the degenerating retina and investigate events in both types of photoreceptors during primary rod degeneration, we utilized droplet-based single-cell RNA sequencing in an RP mouse model, rd10. RESULTS: Using trajectory analysis, we defined two consecutive phases of rod degeneration at P21, characterized by the early transient upregulation of Egr1 and the later induction of Cebpd. EGR1 was the transcription factor most significantly associated with the promoters of differentially regulated genes in Egr1-positive rods in silico. Silencing Egr1 affected the expression levels of two of these genes in vitro. Degenerating rods exhibited changes associated with metabolism, neuroprotection, and modifications to synapses and microtubules. Egr1 was also the most strongly upregulated transcript in cones. Its upregulation in cones accompanied potential early respiratory dysfunction and changes in signaling pathways. The expression pattern of EGR1 in the retina was dynamic during degeneration, with a transient increase of EGR1 immunoreactivity in both rods and cones during the early stages of their degenerative processes. CONCLUSION: Our results identify early and late changes in degenerating rd10 rod photoreceptors and reveal early responses to rod degeneration in cones not expressing the disease-causing mutation, pointing to mechanisms relevant for secondary cone degeneration. In addition, our data implicate EGR1 as a potential key regulator of early degenerative events in rods and cones, providing a potential broad target for modulating photoreceptor degeneration.

The Expression of Decidual Protein Induced by Progesterone (DEPP) is Controlled by Three Distal Consensus Hypoxia Responsive Element (HRE) in Hypoxic Retinal Epithelial Cells.

Hypoxia affects the development and/or progression of several retinopathies. Decidual protein induced by progesterone (DEPP) has been identified as a hypoxia-responsive gene that may be part of cellular pathways such as autophagy and connected to retinal diseases. To increase our understanding of DEPP regulation in the eye, we defined its expression pattern in mouse and human retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Interestingly, DEPP expression was increased in an age-dependent way in the central human RPE. We showed that DEPP was regulated by hypoxia in the mouse retina and eyecup and that this regulation was controlled by hypoxia-inducible transcription factors 1 and 2 (HIF1 and HIF2). Furthermore, we identified three hypoxia response elements (HREs) about 3.5 kb proximal to the transcriptional start site that were responsible for hypoxic induction of DEPP in a human RPE cell line. Comparative genomics analysis suggested that one of the three HREs resides in a highly conserved genomic region. Collectively, we defined the molecular elements controlling hypoxic induction of DEPP in an RPE cell line, and provided evidence for an enrichment of DEPP in the aged RPE of human donors. This makes DEPP an interesting gene to study with respect to aging and age-related retinal pathologies.

Impaired ABCA1/ABCG1-mediated lipid efflux in the mouse retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) leads to retinal degeneration.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a progressive disease of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the retina leading to loss of central vision. Polymorphisms in genes involved in lipid metabolism, including the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), have been associated with AMD risk. However, the significance of retinal lipid handling for AMD pathogenesis remains elusive. Here, we study the contribution of lipid efflux in the RPE by generating a mouse model lacking ABCA1 and its partner ABCG1 specifically in this layer. Mutant mice show lipid accumulation in the RPE, reduced RPE and retinal function, retinal inflammation and RPE/photoreceptor degeneration. Data from human cell lines indicate that the ABCA1 AMD risk-conferring allele decreases ABCA1 expression, identifying the potential molecular cause that underlies the genetic risk for AMD. Our results highlight the essential homeostatic role for lipid efflux in the RPE and suggest a pathogenic contribution of reduced ABCA1 function to AMD.