Classifying and quantifying changes in papilloedema using machine learning.

Background: Machine learning (ML) can differentiate papilloedema from normal optic discs using fundus photos. Currently, papilloedema severity is assessed using the descriptive, ordinal Frisén scale. We hypothesise that ML can quantify papilloedema and detect a treatment effect on papilloedema due to idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Methods: We trained a convolutional neural network to assign a Frisén grade to fundus photos taken from the Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Treatment Trial (IIHTT). We applied modified subject-based fivefold cross-validation to grade 2979 longitudinal images from 158 participants' study eyes (ie, the eye with the worst mean deviation) in the IIHTT. Compared with the human expert-determined grades, we hypothesise that ML-estimated grades can also demonstrate differential changes over time in the IIHTT study eyes between the treatment (acetazolamide (ACZ) plus diet) and placebo (diet only) groups. Findings: The average ML-determined grade correlated strongly with the reference standard (r=0.76, p<0.001; mean absolute error=0.54). At the presentation, treatment groups had similar expert-determined and ML-determined Frisén grades. The average ML-determined grade for the ACZ group (1.7, 95% CI 1.5 to 1.8) was significantly lower (p=0.0003) than for the placebo group (2.3, 95% CI 2.0 to 2.5) at the 6-month trial outcome. Interpretation: Supervised ML of fundus photos quantified the degree of papilloedema and changes over time reflecting the effects of ACZ. Given the increasing availability of fundus photography, neurologists will be able to use ML to quantify papilloedema on a continuous scale that incorporates the features of the Frisén grade to monitor interventions.

Hybrid deep learning and optimal graph search method for optical coherence tomography layer segmentation in diseases affecting the optic nerve.

Accurate segmentation of retinal layers in optical coherence tomography (OCT) images is critical for assessing diseases that affect the optic nerve, but existing automated algorithms often fail when pathology causes irregular layer topology, such as extreme thinning of the ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL). Deep LOGISMOS, a hybrid approach that combines the strengths of deep learning and 3D graph search to overcome their limitations, was developed to improve the accuracy, robustness and generalizability of retinal layer segmentation. The method was trained on 124 OCT volumes from both eyes of 31 non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) patients and tested on three cross-sectional datasets with available reference tracings: Test-NAION (40 volumes from both eyes of 20 NAION subjects), Test-G (29 volumes from 29 glaucoma subjects/eyes), and Test-JHU (35 volumes from 21 multiple sclerosis and 14 control subjects/eyes) and one longitudinal dataset without reference tracings: Test-G-L (155 volumes from 15 glaucoma patients/eyes). In the three test datasets with reference tracings (Test-NAION, Test-G, and Test-JHU), Deep LOGISMOS achieved very high Dice similarity coefficients (%) on GCIPL: 89.97±3.59, 90.63±2.56, and 94.06±1.76, respectively. In the same context, Deep LOGISMOS outperformed the Iowa reference algorithms by improving the Dice score by 17.5, 5.4, and 7.5, and also surpassed the deep learning framework nnU-Net with improvements of 4.4, 3.7, and 1.0. For the 15 severe glaucoma eyes with marked GCIPL thinning (Test-G-L), it demonstrated reliable regional GCIPL thickness measurement over five years. The proposed Deep LOGISMOS approach has potential to enhance precise quantification of retinal structures, aiding diagnosis and treatment management of optic nerve diseases.

Radiation effects on retinal layers revealed by OCT, OCT-A, and perimetry as a function of dose and time from treatment.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has become a key method for diagnosing and staging radiation retinopathy, based mainly on the presence of fluid in the central macula. A robust retinal layer segmentation method is required for identification of the specific layers involved in radiation-induced pathology in individual eyes over time, in order to determine damage driven by radiation injury to the microvessels and to the inner retinal neurons. Here, we utilized OCT, OCT-angiography, visual field testing, and patient-specific dosimetry models to analyze abnormal retinal layer thickening and thinning relative to microvessel density, visual function, radiation dose, and time from radiotherapy in a cross-sectional cohort of uveal melanoma patients treated with 125I-plaque brachytherapy. Within the first 24 months of radiotherapy, we show differential thickening and thinning of the two inner retinal layers, suggestive of microvessel leakage and neurodegeneration, mostly favoring thickening. Four out of 13 eyes showed decreased inner retinal capillary density associated with a corresponding normal inner retinal thickness, indicating early microvascular pathology. Two eyes showed the opposite: significant inner retinal layer thinning and normal capillary density, indicating early neuronal damage preceding a decrease in capillary density. At later time points, inner retinal thinning becomes the dominant pathology and correlates significantly with decreased vascularity, vision loss, and dose to the optic nerve. Stable multiple retinal layer segmentation provided by 3D graph-based methods aids in assessing the microvascular and neuronal response to radiation, information needed to target therapeutics for radiation retinopathy and vision loss.

Visualization of Optic Nerve Structural Patterns in Papilledema Using Deep Learning Variational Autoencoders.

Purpose: To visualize and quantify structural patterns of optic nerve edema encountered in papilledema during treatment. Methods: A novel bi-channel deep-learning variational autoencoder (biVAE) model was trained using 1498 optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans of 125 subjects over time from the Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Treatment Trial (IIHTT) and 791 OCT scans of 96 control subjects from the University of Iowa. An independent test dataset of 70 eyes from 70 papilledema subjects was used to evaluate the ability of the biVAE model to quantify and reconstruct the papilledema spatial patterns from input OCT scans using only two variables. Results: The montage color maps of the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) and total retinal thickness (TRT) produced by the biVAE model provided an organized visualization of the variety of morphological patterns of optic disc edema (including differing patterns at similar thickness levels). Treatment effects of acetazolamide versus placebo in the IIHTT were also demonstrated in the latent space. In image reconstruction, the mean signed peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (pRNFLT) difference ± SD was -0.12 ± 17.34 µm, the absolute pRNFLT difference was 13.68 ± 10.65 µm, and the RNFL structural similarity index reached 0.91 ± 0.05. Conclusions: A wide array of structural patterns of papilledema, integrating the magnitude of disc edema with underlying disc and retinal morphology, can be quantified by just two latent variables. Translational Relevance: A biVAE model encodes structural patterns, as well as the correlation between channels, and may be applied to visualize individuals or populations with papilledema throughout treatment.

Quantitative Assessment of Subjective Symptoms and Corneal Sensitivity in Chronic Orbital Pain Patients.

PURPOSE: To objectively evaluate the subjective symptoms and characteristics of chronic orbital pain as well as to quantify sensitization of peripheral trigeminal nerves. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, patients who previously showed a response to peripheral trigeminal nerve blocks for unilateral, idiopathic chronic orbital pain and healthy subjects completed validated questionnaires assessing headaches, neuropathic signs and symptoms, photophobia, and pain qualities. Corneal sensitivity was measured in both eyes for all subjects with a Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometer. For pain patients, the full assessment protocol was repeated 2-4 weeks after the study injection, and corneal sensitivity was also measured 30 minutes postinjection. Outcomes assessed were headache, neuropathic pain, and photophobia scores; pain qualities; and corneal sensitivity. RESULTS: Six female chronic orbital pain patients (mean age 48.2 years) and 11 female controls (mean age 47.5) were included. The mean headache, neuropathic pain, and photophobia questionnaire scores were significantly higher for pain patients than for controls (p < 0.001). On sensory testing, 5 pain patients (83.3%) endorsed allodynia, and all 6 (100%) had hyperalgesia in the ipsilateral frontal nerve dermatome. No controls had allodynia or hyperalgesia. Corneal sensitivity was similar between eyes in pain patients and between groups. Questionnaire scores and corneal sensitivity did not change significantly after the injection. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic orbital pain patients have a measurable reduction in quality of life due to headaches and photophobia. The supraorbital and supratrochlear nerves are sensitized, resulting in cutaneous hypersensitivity in the corresponding dermatome, but corneal nerves have normal sensitivity.

Mouse model of radiation retinopathy reveals vascular and neuronal injury.

PURPOSE: To characterize the neuronal and vascular pathology in vivo and in vitro in a mouse model of radiation retinopathy. METHODS: C57Bl/6J mice underwent cranial irradiation with 12 Gy and in vivo imaging by optical coherence tomography and of relative blood flow velocity by laser speckle flowgraphy for up to 3-6 months after irradiation. Retinal architecture, vascular density and leakage and apoptosis were analyzed by histology and immunohistochemistry before irradiation or at 10, 30, 240, and 365 days after treatment. RESULTS: The vascular density decreased in the plexiform layers starting at 30 days after irradiation. No impairment in retinal flow velocity was seen. Subtle perivascular leakage was present at 10 days, in particular in the outer plexiform layer. This corresponded to increased width of this layer. However, no significant change in the retinal thickness was detected by OCT-B scans. At 365 days after irradiation, the nuclear density was significantly reduced compared to baseline. Apoptosis was detected at 30 days and less prominent at 365 days. CONCLUSIONS: By histology, vascular leakage at 10 days was followed by increased neuronal apoptosis and loss of neuronal and vascular density. However, in vivo imaging approaches that are commonly used in human patients did not detect pathology in mice.

Acriflavine, a HIF-1 inhibitor, preserves vision in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of optic neuritis.

Introduction: Optic neuritis (ON) is often an early sign of multiple sclerosis (MS), and recent studies show a link between HIF-1 pathway activation and inflammation. This study aimed to determine if inhibition of the HIF-1 pathway using the HIF-1a antagonist acriflavine (ACF) can reduce clinical progression and rescue the ocular phenotype in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) ON model. Methods: EAE-related ON was induced in 60 female C57BL/6J mice by immunization with MOG33-55, and 20 EAE mice received daily systemic injections of ACF at 5 mg/kg. Changes in the visual function and structure of ACF-treated EAE mice were compared to those of placebo-injected EAE mice and naïve control mice. Results: ACF treatment improved motor-sensory impairment along with preserving visual acuity and optic nerve function. Analysis of retinal ganglion cell complex alsoshowed preserved thickness correlating with increased survival of retinal ganglion cells and their axons. Optic nerve cell infiltration and magnitude of demyelination were decreased in ACF-treated EAE mice. Subsequent in vitro studies revealed improvements not only attributed to the inhibition of HIF-1 butalso to previously unappreciated interaction with the eIF2a/ATF4 axis in the unfolded protein response pathway. Discussion: This study suggests that ACF treatment is effective in an animal model of MS via its pleiotropic effects on the inhibition of HIF-1 and UPR signaling, and it may be a viable approach to promote rehabilitation in MS.

Archetypal analysis of longitudinal visual fields for idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients presenting in a clinic setting.

We previously applied archetypal analysis (AA) using visual fields (VF) from the Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Treatment Trial (IIHTT) to derive a model, which quantified patterns (or archetypes [ATs] of VF loss), anticipated recovery, and identified residual VF deficits. We hypothesized that AA could produce similar results using IIH VFs collected in clinical practice. We applied AA to 803 VFs from 235 eyes with IIH from an outpatient neuro-ophthalmology clinic and created a clinic-derived model of ATs, with the relative weight (RW) and average total deviation (TD) for each AT. We also created a combined-derived model from an input dataset containing the clinic VFs and 2862 VFs from the IIHTT. We used both models to decompose clinic VF into ATs of varying percent weight (PW), correlated presentation AT PW with mean deviation (MD), and evaluated final visit VFs considered "normal" by MD ≥ -2.00 dB for residual abnormal ATs. The 14-AT clinic-derived and combined-derived models revealed similar patterns of VF loss previously identified in the IIHTT model. AT1 (a normal pattern) was most prevalent in both models (RW = 51.8% for clinic-derived; 35.4% for combined-derived). Presentation AT1 PW correlated with final visit MD (r = 0.82, p < 0.001 for the clinic-derived model; r = 0.59, p < 0.001 for the combined-derived model). Both models showed ATs with similar patterns of regional VF loss. The most common patterns of VF loss in "normal" final visit VFs using each model were clinic-derived AT2 (mild global depression with enlarged blind spot; 44/125 VFs; 34%) and combined-derived AT2 (near-normal; 93/149 VFs; 62%). AA provides quantitative values for IIH-related patterns of VF loss that can be used to monitor VF changes in a clinic setting. Presentation AT1 PW is associated with the degree of VF recovery. AA identifies residual VF deficits not otherwise indicated by MD.

Evaluation of ocular blood flow in the assessment of symptomatic carotid stenosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The degree of internal carotid artery (ICA) stenosis determined by criteria from the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) is not the most accurate index to assess distal flow compromise. Distal ICA perfusion is also determined by factors such as tandem carotid stenosis and collateral circulation. Quantification of end-organ ocular perfusion using non-invasive laser speckle flowgraphy (LSFG) may provide insights into distal ICA flow. This study prospectively assessed the degree of ICA flow using LSFG. METHODS: Eighteen patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis underwent LSFG evaluation. LSFG was used to extract ocular blood flow metrics recorded simultaneously in the retina, choroid, and optic nerve head. The following ocular flow parameters were measured with LSFG: mean blur rate (MBR), flow acceleration index (FAI), and rising rate (RR). Syngo iFlow perfusion imaging was used to objectively quantify contrast flow in the ICA and brain parenchyma during digital subtraction angiography. Time to peak (TTP) and contrast delay were extracted from seven different regions of interest (ROIs). RESULTS: MBR, FAI, and RR were correlated with NASCET degree of stenosis. FAI and RR also improved after stenting. TTP improved after stenting in three ROIs. A moderate negative correlation was observed between FAI and contrast delay. CONCLUSIONS: LSFG non-invasively quantifies end-organ blood flow distal to the ICA origin. LSFG metrics have the potential to quantify end-organ perfusion and determine if a proximal carotid stenosis is symptomatic.

Retinal arterial-venous pulse delay: a new specific marker for a carotid-cavernous fistula.

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to describe ocular blood flow changes in eyes affected by a carotid-cavernous fistula (CCF) using laser speckle flowgraphy. We hypothesized that imaging blood flow velocity waveforms in the retinal arterioles and venules simultaneously would reveal specific characteristics of an arteriovenous (AV) connection. Design: The study was an observational case series, with a retrospective case-control analysis. Methods: Five patients with a CCF underwent measurement of ocular blood flow using laser speckle flowgraphy. The blood flow was compared retrospectively between a control group of healthy subjects (n = 32) and patients with an elevated intraocular pressure or venous outflow impairment without an AV fistula (n = 40). The outcomes were derived from the arteriole and venule blood flow velocity waveforms, including an A-V phase delay and flow pulsatility. Results: The presence of an active CCF was associated with an increased delay in the peak velocity measured in the retinal venule (10.7% ± 2.2% of the cardiac cycle duration) compared with unaffected fellow eyes (1.8% ± 0.2%; p = 0.05) or control eyes of normal subjects (2.7% ± 0.3%; p = 0.02). This delay disappeared after fistula thrombosis and was not present in eyes with a central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO), glaucoma, non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION), or papilledema. The venule blood flow velocity decreased during systole (and in some cases momentarily stopped), leading to a delayed pulse with a greater amplitude in the venules than in fellow eyes and normal controls after normalizing to the arteriole amplitude (1.71 ± 0.3 vs 0.54 ± 0.03 vs 0.59 ± 0.02; p = 8.0E-12). This specific AV delay could also be identified in a scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO; SPECTRALIS®) video. Conclusion: Laser speckle flowgraphy reveals dynamic retinal vascular changes in eyes affected by a CCF, which are not present in healthy controls or patients with other eye conditions, and which reverses with treatment.

Targeting Cholesterol Homeostasis Improves Recovery in Experimental Optic Neuritis.

Acute optic neuritis (ON) is a common cause of vision loss and is often associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). Cholesterol recycling has been identified as a key limiting factor in recovery after demyelination events. Thus, the purpose of our study was to determine if the augmentation of cholesterol transport by gentisic acid (GA) benefits retinal ganglion cell (RGC) development and myelination in organoid systems and enables the recovery of the ocular phenotype upon systemic GA treatment in a MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) ON model. The retinal organoids treated with GA demonstrate an accelerated maturation when compared to the conventionally derived organoids, which was evidenced by the improved organization of Brn3a-GFP+RGC and increased synaptogenesis. A GA supplementation in brain organoids leads to a 10-fold increase in NG2 and Olig2 expression. Weekly GA injections of EAE mice significantly lessened motor-sensory impairment, protected amplitudes in pattern electroretinogram recordings, and preserved visual acuity over the study period of 56 days. Furthermore, GA-treated EAE mice revealed diminished GCL/IPL complex thinning when compared to the untreated EAE mice. An optic nerve histopathology revealed less severe grades of demyelination in the GA-treated EAE cohort and fewer infiltrating cells were observed. Interventions to improve cholesterol homeostasis may be a viable approach to promoting the rehabilitation of MS patients.

Reduced blood flow by laser speckle flowgraphy after 125I-plaque brachytherapy for uveal melanoma.

BACKGROUND: To determine whether reductions in retinal and choroidal blood flow measured by laser speckle flowgraphy are detected after 125I-plaque brachytherapy for uveal melanoma. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, retinal and choroidal blood flow were measured using laser speckle flowgraphy in 25 patients after treatment with 125I-plaque brachytherapy for uveal melanoma. Flow was analyzed in the peripapillary region by mean blur rate as well as in the entire image area with a novel superpixel-based method. Relationships between measures were determined by Spearman correlation. RESULTS: Significant decreases in laser speckle blood flow were observed in both the retinal and choroidal vascular beds of irradiated, but not fellow, eyes. Overall, 24 of 25 patients had decreased blood flow compared to their fellow eye, including 5 of the 6 patients imaged within the first 6 months following brachytherapy. A significant negative correlation between blood flow and time from therapy was present. CONCLUSIONS: Decreases in retinal and choroidal blood flow by laser speckle flowgraphy were detected within the first 6 months following brachytherapy. Reduced retinal and choroidal blood flow may be an early indicator of microangiographic response to radiation therapy.

Longitudinal optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) in a patient with radiation retinopathy following plaque brachytherapy for uveal melanoma.

Purpose: Patients with choroidal melanoma treated with brachytherapy lose vision over time due to radiation retinopathy and optic neuropathy. Newer imaging modalities such as optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) may provide further insight into the ultrastructural vascular changes that occur over time. We studied the progressive OCT-A derived reduction in capillary density that occurred in the macula and juxtapapillary region of a patient treated with plaque brachytherapy for posterior uveal melanoma. Methods: A patient with medium-sized choroidal melanoma in the inferonasal mid-periphery of the right eye was followed with OCT-A imaging in addition to standard imaging (color fundus photography, standardized echography, OCT) over a four-year time period following brachytherapy. Images were analyzed to measure vascular density in nine discrete areas of the macula at each time point as a function of region-specific radiation dose. Results: OCT-A over time showed focal capillary loss and enlargement of the foveal avascular zone in addition to vascular re-modeling. These changes progressed over time despite improvement in the clinical markers of radiation retinopathy (cotton wool spots, retinal hemorrhages). Radiation dose significantly correlated with rate of reduction in vascular density assessed within 9 square sectors of the macula, and was greatest in sectors closest to the plaque, which had received the highest radiation dose. There was no change in the choriocapillaris flow area over time. The patient developed cystoid macular edema, but maintained 20/30 vision. Conclusions and Importance: Longitudinal OCT-A demonstrates the microvascular changes that occur in response to radiation over time. Identification of these features may help define therapeutic windows to prevent vision loss associated with radiation retinopathy and optic neuropathy. Ongoing studies will describe a larger cohort of patients followed with this modality over time.

Peripheral Trigeminal Nerve Blocks for Chronic Orbital Pain: Clinical Features and Outcomes.

PURPOSE: To characterize chronic orbital pain in patients who benefitted from peripheral trigeminal nerve blocks and to explore the relationship between pain etiologies and phenotypes, injection attributes, and positive response to treatment. METHODS: In this single-center retrospective descriptive study, patients who underwent peripheral trigeminal nerve blocks for chronic orbital pain from November 2016 to May 2021 were selected. Data reviewed included inciting factors, neuropathic symptoms of orbital pain, injection composition (anesthetic alone versus anesthetic + dexamethasone), and corneal epitheliopathy grades. Primary outcomes assessed were response to injection, duration of injection effectiveness, and overall treatment efficacy. Associations between subgroups of chronic orbital pain, injection attributes, and treatment outcomes were examined. RESULTS: Nineteen patients who underwent a total of 94 peripheral trigeminal nerve blocks for chronic orbital pain were included. During a mean follow-up period of 2.4 years after initial injection (range 7 days-4.6 years), 16 (84.2%) patients achieved either partial or complete improvement. Ocular versus nonocular origin of orbital pain or the presence of neuropathic sensory characteristics was not associated with a treatment outcome. Injections containing dexamethasone had a lower positive efficacy (relative risk, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.81-0.97) and no statistically significant association with prolonged effect. Twenty-nine (50.9%) of the 57 injections for which effect duration was recorded produced a response lasting greater than 6 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Modulation of trigeminal afferent nerve activity with peripheral trigeminal nerve blocks containing anesthetic with or without dexamethasone may be a promising treatment strategy for chronic orbital pain of diverse etiologies and phenotypes.

Measuring hyperemic response to light flicker stimulus using continuous laser speckle flowgraphy in mice.

Alterations in neurovascular coupling have been associated with various ocular, cerebral, and systemic vascular disorders. In the eye, changes in vessel caliber by dynamic vessel analysis have been used to measure neurovascular coupling following a light flicker stimulus. Here, we present a new protocol for quantifying light-flicker induced hyperemia in the C57/Bl6J mouse retina using laser speckle flowgraphy (LSFG). Our protocol was adapted from protocols used in human subjects. By acquiring continuous time series data, we detected significant increase in blood flow. These responses are maintained with low variability over multiple imaging sessions, indicating these methods may be applied in serial studies of neurovascular coupling.

Clinical Correlation Between Vertical Gaze Palsy and Midbrain Volume in Progressive Supranuclear Palsy.

BACKGROUND: Supranuclear vertical gaze palsies and slowed vertical saccades are characteristic clinic features of progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP). The "hummingbird sign," reflective of midbrain atrophy, is a classic radiographic sign of PSP. Correlation between eye movement abnormalities and radiographic findings in PSP has been reported previously. However, due to the use of clinical criteria not commonly employed in neuro-ophthalmic practice and neuroimaging techniques that are not widely available, it remains unclear whether correlation between midbrain structure and characteristic ocular-motor disturbances can be helpful to neuro-ophthalmologists seeking to adjudicate difficult or unusual diagnostic cases. METHODS: Patients with a diagnosis of probable PSP according to Movement Disorders Society criteria were studied retrospectively. A neuroradiologist calculated brainstem volumes in enrolled participants and normal controls. Spearman correlations were used to correlate the extent of eye movement limitation as assessed by 2 neuro-ophthalmologists with brainstem volumes. RESULTS: Fourteen participants with PSP and 15 healthy controls with similar age and gender distribution were enrolled and evaluated retrospectively. All 14 participants with PSP had undergone MRIs. Midbrain atrophy significantly correlated with the PSP rating scale (P < 0.001). PSP patients had significantly reduced volumes in the midbrain (P -0.0026), tegmentum (0.0001), tectum (0.0001), and medulla (P = 0.0024) compared with normal controls. Notes documenting quantified ocular motor function were available in 7 of 14 participants with PSP. Midbrain atrophy significantly correlated with in the extent of upward gaze limitation (P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: The severity of upward gaze limitation correlates with the severity of midbrain atrophy in patients with PSP. Recognition of this correlation may help to adjudicate diagnostic dilemmas and guide further evaluation.

Decreased Expression of Glial-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Receptors in Glaucomatous Human Retinas.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the expression of glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), the GDNF receptors GFRα1 and GFRα2, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and the CNTF receptor CNTFRα in normal and glaucomatous human tissue. METHODS: Human retinas were collected from 8 donors that had been clinically diagnosed and treated for glaucoma, and also from 9 healthy control donors. Immunohistochemical analysis for each trophic factor and receptor was performed. The percent of each retinal section labeled with each antibody was quantified for the total retinal thickness, and separately for the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) complex + retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL). The expression of each protein was correlated with measures of the subject's ocular histories. RESULTS: The percentage area immunopositive for GFRα2 was significantly decreased in the total retinal thickness containing all retinal layers and in the combined RGC complex + RNFL in glaucomatous eyes in both the peripapillary region and more peripheral retinal locations. We also observed a decrease in GFRα1 expression in the peripapillary RGC Complex + RNFL in glaucoma patients compared to healthy control patients. We also observed a relationship between GDNF and its receptors with several outcomes obtained from the medical record. No differences in CNTF or CNTFR labeling were observed. CONCLUSION: Decreases in GDNF receptor expression in glaucomatous tissue may limit the potential for neuroprotective therapy by supplementation with GDNF.

Automated detection of squint as a sensitive assay of sex-dependent calcitonin gene-related peptide and amylin-induced pain in mice.

ABSTRACT: We developed an automated squint assay using both black C57BL/6J and white CD1 mice to measure the interpalpebral fissure area between the upper and lower eyelids as an objective quantification of pain. The automated software detected a squint response to the commonly used nociceptive stimulus formalin in C57BL/6J mice. After this validation, we used the automated assay to detect a dose-dependent squint response to a migraine trigger, the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide, including a response in female mice at a dose below detection by the manual grimace scale. Finally, we found that the calcitonin gene-related peptide amylin induced squinting behavior in female mice, but not males. These data demonstrate that an automated squint assay can be used as an objective, real-time, continuous-scale measure of pain that provides higher precision and real-time analysis compared with manual grimace assessments.

Optical coherence tomography in multiple sclerosis: A 3-year prospective multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate changes over 3 years in the thickness of inner retinal layers including the peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL), and combined macular ganglion cell and inner plexiform layers (mGCIPL), in individuals with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) versus healthy controls; to determine whether optical coherence tomography (OCT) is sufficiently sensitive and reproducible to detect small degrees of neuroaxonal loss over time that correlate with changes in brain volume and disability progression as measured by the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). METHODS: Individuals with RRMS from 28 centers (n = 333) were matched with 64 healthy participants. OCT scans were performed on Heidelberg Spectralis machines (at baseline; 1 month; 6 months; 6-monthly thereafter). RESULTS: OCT measurements were highly reproducible between baseline and 1 month (intraclass correlation coefficient >0.98). Significant inner retinal layer thinning was observed in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) compared with controls regardless of previous MS-associated optic neuritis--group differences (95% CI) over 3 years: pRNFL: -1.86 (-2.54, -1.17) µm; mGCIPL: -2.03 (-2.78, -1.28) µm (both p < 0.0001; effect sizes 0.39 and 0.34). Greater inner retinal layer atrophy was observed in individuals diagnosed with RRMS <3 years versus >5 years (pRNFL: p < 0.05; mGCIPL: p < 0.01). Brain volume decreased by 1.3% in individuals with MS over 3 years compared to 0.5% in control subjects (effect size 0.76). mGCIPL atrophy correlated with brain atrophy (p < 0.0001). There was no correlation of OCT data with disability progression. INTERPRETATION: OCT has potential to estimate rates of neurodegeneration in the retina and brain. The effect size for OCT, smaller than for magnetic resonance imaging based on Heidelberg Spectralis data acquired in this study, was increased in early disease.