Polyaniline/Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite-Enhanced Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Activity for the Degradation of Organic Dyes.

Creation of an innovative composite photocatalyst, to advance its performance, has attracted researchers to the field of photocatalysis. In this article, a new photocatalyst based on polyaniline/reduced graphene oxide (PANI/RGO) composites has been prepared via the in situ oxidative polymerization method employing RGO as a template. For thermoelectric applications, though a higher percentage (50 wt %) of RGO has been used, for photocatalytic activity, lesser percentages (2, 5, and 8 wt %) of RGO in the composite have given a significant outcome. Furthermore, photoluminescence (PL) spectra, time-resolved fluorescence spectra, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area analyses confirmed the improved photocatalytic mechanism. PANI/RGO composites under visible light irradiation exhibit amazingly improved activity toward the degradation of cationic and anionic dyes in comparison with pristine PANI or RGO. Here, a PANI/RGO composite, with 5 wt % RGO(PG2), has emerged as the best combination with the degradation percentages of 99.68, 99.35, and 98.73 for malachite green, rhodamine B, and congo red within 15, 30, and 40 min, respectively. Experimental findings show that the introduction of RGO can relieve the agglomeration of PANI nanoparticles and enhance the light absorption of the materials due to an increased surface area. Moreover, the PG2 composite also showed excellent photocatalytic activity to reduce noxious Cr(VI). The effective removal of Cr(VI) up to 94.7% at pH 2 was observed within only 15 min. With the help of the active species trapping experiment, a plausible mechanism for the photocatalytic degradation has been proposed. The heightened activity of the as-synthesized composite compared to that of neat PANI or RGO was generally because of high concentrations of •OH radicals and partly of •O2 - and holes (h+) as concluded from the nitroblue tetrazolium probe test and photoluminescence experiment. It is hoped that the exceptional photocatalytic performance of our work makes the conducting polymer-based composite an effective alternative in wastewater treatment for industrial applications.

Synthesis, characterization and enhanced thermoelectric performance of structurally ordered cable-like novel polyaniline-bismuth telluride nanocomposite.

Bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) nanorods and polyaniline (PANI) nanoparticles have been synthesized by employing solvothermal and chemical oxidative processes, respectively. Nanocomposites, comprising structurally ordered PANI preferentially grown along the surface of a Bi2Te3 nanorods template, are synthesized using in situ polymerization. X-ray powder diffraction, UV-vis and Raman spectral analysis confirm the highly ordered chain structure of PANI on Bi2Te3 nanorods, leading to a higher extent of doping, higher chain mobility and enhancement of the thermoelectric performance. Above 380 K, the PANI-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite with a core-shell/cable-like structure exhibits a higher thermoelectric power factor than either pure PANI or Bi2Te3. At room temperature the thermal conductivity of the composite is lower than that of its pure constituents, due to selective phonon scattering by the nanointerfaces designed in the PANI-Bi2Te3 nanocable structures. The figure of merit of the nanocomposite at room temperature is comparable to the values reported in the literature for bulk polymer-based composite thermoelectric materials.

Ionic ingress and charge-neutralization phenomena of conducting-polymer films.

Ionic ingress and diffusion through a conducting-polymer (CP) film containing embedded charges under potential and concentration gradients is studied. Electroneutrality, a common assumption in modeling of similar systems, is not justified in this case or similar diffusion-limited processes, as the timescale of ionic diffusion in the solid matrix is quite large. Counter ions therefore cannot move instantaneously for effective neutralization of excess charges. Poisson-Nernst-Planck (PNP) equations have to be solved for such cases without any simplifying assumption. Analytical solution shows the existence of a charge boundary layer, which limits and strongly influences the ionic flux. A general numerical method for solution is also developed for the dynamic modeling, analysis, and design of these types of systems. The numerical results are validated by comparison with analytical solutions as well as with some experimental results available in the literature. With this modeling framework, the basic features of controlled release of molecules across a CP film under an applied electrical potential can be explained quantitatively.

Spinodal instability and pattern formation in thin liquid films confined between two plates.

The instability, morphology and pattern formation engendered by the van der Waals force in a thin liquid film of thickness h confined between two closely placed solid surfaces (at distance d > h) are investigated based on nonlinear 3D simulations. The initial and the final stages of dewetting and pattern formation are found to be crucially dependent on the volumetric (thickness) ratio of air and liquid and its deviation from the location of the maximum of the spinodal parameter versus volumetric ratio curve. On a low energy surface, relatively thinner films and wider air gaps favor initial dewetting of the lower plate by the formation of holes, whereas thicker films with thinner air gaps initially evolve by the formation of columns/bridges that join the upper plate. In the later stage of evolution, the initial holes in thinner films evolve into columns/drops, while a rapid coalescence of columns in the thicker films eventually causes formation of holes. Thus, a phase inversion, either from liquid-in-air to air-in-liquid dispersion or vice versa, occurs during the final stages of evolution. A thin film confined between two high-energy solid surfaces forms columns (bridges) only when its mean thickness, h0, is greater than a critical thickness (hc) or the air gap is smaller than a critical distance. The patterns can be aligned by using a topographically patterned confining surface. Conditions on pattern periodicity, amplitude, and the volumetric ratio of air and liquid in the gap are explored for the formation of various types of ordered patterns including annular rings of columns, concentric ripples, parallel channels and a rectangular array of complex features. The results are of significance in soft lithographies such as LISA, soft stamping and capillary force lithography.

Electric field induced instability and pattern formation in thin liquid films.

Electrostatic field induced instability, morphology, and patterning of a thin liquid film confined between two electrodes with an air gap are studied on the basis of nonlinear 3D simulations, both for spatially homogeneous and heterogeneous fields. In addition to the spinodal flow resulting from the variation of field because of local thickness changes, a heterogeneous imposed field also moves the liquid from the regions of low field to high field, thus allowing a more precise control of pattern. Hexagonal packing of liquid columns is observed for a spatially homogeneous electric field, which is in accord with the e-field experiments on thin polymer films (Schaffer et al. Nature 2000, 403, 874). For a large liquid volume fraction in the gap, varphi > or = 0.75, the coalescence of columns causes a phase inversion, leading to the formation of air columns or cylindrical holes trapped in the liquid matrix (air-in-liquid dispersion). Locally ordered aligned patterns are formed by imposing a spatial variation of the electrostatic field by using a topographically patterned electrode. For example, multiple rows/lines of liquid columns are formed near the edge of a step-like heterogeneity of the electrode and annular rings of ordered columns or concentric ripples are formed around a heterogeneous circular patch. Simulations predict that the electrode pattern is replicated in the film only when the pattern periodicity, L(p), exceeds the instability length scale on the basis of the minimum interelectrode separation distance, L(p) > or = lambda(m)-d(min). Thus, the formation of secondary structures can be suppressed by employing an electrode with deep grooves and stronger field gradients, which produces almost ideal templating. The number density of the electric field induced patterns can be altered by tuning the mean film thickness (or the volume fraction of liquid in the gap), periodicity and depth (amplitude) of the grooves on the top electrode, and the applied voltage. The implications are in electrostatic lithography, pattern replication in soft materials, and the design and interpretation of thin film experiments involving electric fields.

Instability, dynamics, and morphology of thin slipping films.

Based on the linear stability and nonlinear simulations, we show that the surface instability, dynamics, and morphology of supported thin liquid films are profoundly altered by the presence of slippage on the substrate. A general dispersion equation for flow in slipping thin films is derived and simplified to identify three different regimes of slippage (weak, moderate, and strong) and obtain the length and time scales of instability in them. For illustration, the ubiquitous van der Waals interactions have been employed. Different regimes of slip-flow can be predicted based on a nondimensional parameter, xi, which is a function of slip length, film thickness, intermolecular potential, and interfacial tension. Two distinct transitions from weak to moderate slip and from moderate to strong slip occur at xiT1 approximately 0.01 and xiT2 approximately 500, respectively. More specifically, a decrease in film thickness causes transitions from weak to moderate to strong slip regime. Even a weak slippage causes faster breakup of a thin film, whereas slippage beyond a transition value (slip length, bT1) increases the length scale of instability and reduces the number density of holes compared to the nonslipping case. Strong slippage produces holes faster, and the holes are fewer in number and have less developed rims. The exponents for the length scale (lambdam infinity h0n; h0 is film thickness) and time scale of instability (tr infinity h0m) change nonmonotonically with slippage (for nonretarded van der Waals instability, n E (1.25, 2), m E (3, 6)). Retardation in van der Waals potential increases the exponents (n E (1.5, 2.5), m E (5, 8)). The initial stage of evolution of a slipping film, simulated based on nonlinear equations, follows the length scale and time scale of instability, close to the prediction of linear analysis. It is hoped that the present analysis will help in better interpretation of thin film experiments, in estimation of slippage, and in the determination of intermolecular forces from the length and time scales of the instability.

Creation of ordered patterns by dewetting of thin films on homogeneous and heterogeneous substrates.

Spontaneous formation of locally ordered patterns during dewetting of thin films on homogeneous and heterogeneous substrates is investigated based on the 3-D nonlinear equation of motion. Physicochemical heterogeneities engender the rapid formation of the primary holes that serve as "seeds" for the formation of locally ordered structures. The secondary multiring structure surrounding the primary hole evolves by one of the following two different pathways depending on the film thickness vis-à-vis the location of the minimum in the spinodal curve: (A) Thick films evolve by the formation of secondary satellite holes that originate from a ring-like depression behind the rim of the primary hole. The process of ordering is repeated until the true spinodal holes appear on the remaining substrate. (B) Ordering in a relatively thin film occurs by the formation of droplets caused by the disintegration of the elevated rim that surrounds the primary hole. The radial distance between the successive ordered layers is close to the spinodal length scale, lambda(m). Droplets within the same layer are separated by a distance slightly greater than lambda(m), whereas holes within the same layer are separated by a distance slightly less than lambda(m). The number density of holes or droplets in the ordered pattern is of the same order as the predictions of the spinodal theory. The number of ordered layers and the size of the locally ordered domain depend significantly on the relative magnitudes of the time scales for the following events: (1) formation of the primary hole, (2) growth of holes (inverse of hole-growth velocity), (3) formation of a secondary feature (hole or droplet) adjacent to the primary hole, (4) true spinodal rupture far from the primary hole. The morphology of an ordered structure can therefore be tailored by modulation of the film thickness and the short- and long-range intermolecular interactions (substrate surface properties), since these affect the time scales 1 to 4 in different ways.