Expression, purification, and functional analysis of the human serine protease HtrA2.

HumHtrA2 or Omi is a recently described member of a novel family of mammalian serine proteases homologous to the Escherichia coli htrA gene product. Although the physiological function of members of this new family is unclear, the current understanding is that as well as being involved with the degradation aberrantly folded proteins during conditions of cellular stress, they may possess a chaperone-like role under normal conditions. In this report we describe the overexpression of humHtrA2 in two heterologous systems comparing the merits of each. We found that molecular analysis of processing events in Sf9 cells allowed us to revisit E. coli expression systems which were initially unsuccessful. Using E. coli we were able to produce milligram amounts of >90% pure recombinant enzyme as determined by SDS-PAGE gels. By means of fluorescently labeled substrates alpha- and beta-casein and zymography, the proteolytic activity of recombinant HumHtrA2 was also demonstrated.

Fractionation and characterization of oligomeric, protofibrillar and fibrillar forms of beta-amyloid peptide.

The beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptide, a major component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease brain, has been shown previously to undergo a process of polymerization to produce neurotoxic forms of amyloid. Recent literature has attempted to define precisely the form of Abeta responsible for its neurodegenerative properties. In the present study we describe a novel density-gradient centrifugation method for the isolation and characterization of structurally distinct polymerized forms of Abeta peptide. Fractions containing protofibrils, fibrils, sheet structures and low molecular mass oligomers were prepared. The fractionated forms of Abeta were characterized structurally by transmission electron microscopy. The effects on cell viability of these fractions was determined in the B12 neuronal cell line and hippocampal neurons. Marked effects on cell viability in the cells were found to correspond to the presence of protofibrillar and fibrillar structures, but not to monomeric peptide or sheet-like structures of polymerized Abeta. Biological activity correlated with a positive reaction in an immunoassay that specifically detects protofibrillar and fibrillar Abeta; those fractions that were immunoassay negative had no effect on cell viability. These data suggest that the effect of Abeta on cell viability is not confined to a single conformational form but that both fibrillar and protofibrillar species have the potential to be active in this assay.

Development of Neoepitope Antibodies Against the ß-Secretase Cleavage Site in the Amyloid Precursor Protein.

A detailed understanding of the biochemical events leading to the proteolytic excision of the ß-amyloid peptide (A ß) from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) has eluded many researchers. This is largely because the measurement of the various APP processing products is technically challenging owing to their low levels of production in in vitro and in vivo test systems. Sequence analysis of products in cell cultures, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and amyloid plaques has been used to predict the major cleavage sites resulting from the ß- and γ-secretase proteolytic activities that release the Aß peptide from APP (1 -3). More routine identification of the secretase activities has relied on the specificity and sensitivity of antibodies raised to the predicted cleavage products and has been impeded by the difficulties associated with the generation of such reagents.

Cleavage of Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein by alpha-secretase occurs at the surface of neuronal cells.

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is proteolytically processed predominantly by alpha-secretase to release the ectodomain (sAPPalpha). In this study, we have addressed the cellular location of the constitutive alpha-secretase cleavage of endogenous APP in a neuronal cell line. Incubation of the neuroblastoma cell line IMR32 at 20 degrees C prevented the secretion into the medium of soluble wild-type APP cleaved by alpha-secretase as revealed by both immunoelectrophoretic blot analysis with a site-specific antibody and immunoprecipitation following metabolic labeling of the cells. No sAPPalpha was detected in the cell lysates following incubation of the cells at 20 degrees C, indicating that alpha-secretase does not cleave APP in the secretory pathway prior to or within the trans-Golgi network. Parallel studies using an antibody that recognizes specifically the neoepitope revealed on soluble APP cleaved by beta-secretase indicated that this enzyme was acting intracellularly. alpha-Secretase is a zinc metalloproteinase susceptible to inhibition by hydroxamate-based compounds such as batimastat [Parvathy, S., et al. (1998) Biochemistry 37, 1680-1685]. Incubation of the cells with a cell-impermeant, biotinylated hydroxamate inhibitor inhibited the release of sAPPalpha by >92%, indicating that alpha-secretase is cleaving APP almost exclusively at the cell surface. The observation that alpha-secretase cleaves APP at the cell surface, while beta-secretase can act earlier in the secretory pathway within the neuronal cell line indicates that there must be strict control mechanisms in place to ensure that APP is normally cleaved primarily by alpha-secretase in the nonamyloidogenic pathway to produce the neuroprotective sAPPalpha.

Alzheimer's disease: correlation of the suppression of beta-amyloid peptide secretion from cultured cells with inhibition of the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome.

Peptide aldehyde inhibitors of the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome (CLIP) such as N-acetyl-Leu-Leu-Nle-H (or ALLN) have been shown previously to inhibit the secretion of beta-amyloid peptide (A beta) from cells. To evaluate more fully the role of the proteasome in this process, we have tested the effects on A beta formation of a much wider range of peptide-based inhibitors of CLIP than published previously. The inhibitors tested included several peptide boronates, some of which proved to be the most potent peptide-based inhibitors of beta-amyloid production reported so far. We found that the ability of the peptide aldehyde and boronate inhibitors to suppress A beta formation from cells correlated extremely well with their potency as CLIP inhibitors. Thus, we conclude that the proteasome may be involved either directly or indirectly in A beta formation.

Characterization of detergent-insoluble complexes containing the familial Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilins.

Many cases of early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease have been linked to mutations within two genes encoding the proteins presenilin-1 and presenilin-2. The presenilins are 48-56-kDa proteins that can be proteolytically cleaved to generate an N-terminal fragment (approximately 25-35 kDa) and a C-terminal fragment (approximately 17-20 kDa). The N- and C-terminal fragments of presenilin-1, but not full-length presenilin-1, were readily detected in both human and mouse cerebral cortex and in neuronal and glioma cell lines. In contrast, presenilin-2 was detected almost exclusively in cerebral cortex as the full-length molecule with a molecular mass of 56 kDa. The association of the presenilins with detergent-insoluble, low-density membrane microdomains, following the isolation of these structures from cerebral cortex by solubilization in Triton X-100 and subsequent sucrose density gradient centrifugation, was also examined. A minor fraction (10%) of both the N- and C-terminal fragments of presenilin-1 was associated with the detergent-insoluble, low-density membrane microdomains, whereas a considerably larger proportion of full-length presenilin-2 was present in the same membrane microdomains. In addition, a significant proportion of full-length presenilin-2 was present in a high-density, detergent-insoluble cytoskeletal pellet enriched in beta-actin. The presence of the presenilins in detergent-insoluble, low-density membrane microdomains indicates a possible role for these specialized regions of the membrane in the lateral separation of Alzheimer's disease-associated proteins within the lipid bilayer and/or in the distinct functions of these proteins.

Presenilins--in search of functionality.

The discovery of the PS proteins, the complexities of their biochemistry and their potential involvement in signalling pathways and in apoptosis have galvanized research into AD. To date, the aspect of the functionality of the PSs most relevant to the pathology of AD is the effect of PS FAD mutants to increase the proportion of A beta 42 produced from cells. This, coupled to the observation that gamma-secretase cleavage is considerably reduced in neurons derived from PS-1 knockout mice, argues strongly that PS plays a very direct role in the proteolytic processing of APP.

The secretases that cleave angiotensin converting enzyme and the amyloid precursor protein are distinct from tumour necrosis factor-alpha convertase.

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein are cleaved from the membrane by zinc metalloproteinases termed ACE secretase and alpha-secretase, respectively. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) convertase (ADAM 17) is a recently identified member of the adamalysin family of mammalian zinc metalloproteinases that is involved in the production of TNF-alpha and possibly in the cleavage of other membrane proteins. Using two different cell-free assays we were unable to detect significant cleavage and secretion of ACE by TNF-alpha convertase. In addition, there was a different effect of three hydroxamic acid-based inhibitors (batimastat, compound 1 and compound 4) towards TNF-alpha convertase as compared to ACE secretase and alpha-secretase. Thus TNF-alpha convertase would appear to be distinct from, but possibly related to, the secretases that cleave ACE and the amyloid precursor protein.

Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein alpha-secretase is inhibited by hydroxamic acid-based zinc metalloprotease inhibitors: similarities to the angiotensin converting enzyme secretase.

The 4 kDa beta-amyloid peptide that forms the amyloid fibrils in the brain parenchyma of Alzheimer's disease patients is derived from the larger integral membrane protein, the amyloid precursor protein. In the nonamyloidogenic pathway, alpha-secretase cleaves the amyloid precursor protein within the beta-amyloid domain, releasing an extracellular portion and thereby preventing deposition of the intact amyloidogenic peptide. The release of the amyloid precursor protein from both SH-SY5Y and IMR-32 neuronal cells by alpha-secretase was blocked by batimastat and other related synthetic hydroxamic acid-based zinc metalloprotease inhibitors, but not by the structurally unrelated zinc metalloprotease inhibitors enalaprilat and phosphoramidon. Batimastat inhibited the release of the amyloid precursor protein from both cell lines with an I50 value of 3 microM. Removal of the thienothiomethyl substituent adjacent to the hydroxamic acid moiety or the substitution of the P2' substituent decreased the inhibitory potency of batimastat toward alpha-secretase. In the SH-SY5Y cells, both the basal and the carbachol-stimulated release of the amyloid precursor protein were blocked by batimastat. In contrast, neither the level of full-length amyloid precursor protein nor its cleavage by beta-secretase were inhibited by any of the zinc metalloprotease inhibitors examined. In transfected IMR-32 cells, the release of both the amyloid precursor protein and angiotensin converting enzyme was inhibited by batimastat, marimastat, and BB2116 with I50 values in the low micromolar range, while batimastat and BB2116 inhibited the release of both proteins from HUVECs. The profile of inhibition of alpha-secretase by batimastat and structurally related compounds is identical with that observed with the angiotensin converting enzyme secretase suggesting that the two are closely related zinc metalloproteases.

A matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor which prevents fibroblast-mediated collagen lattice contraction.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the specific tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are involved in tissue turnover in normal and pathological processes including wound healing. Marimastat, a potent inhibitor of MMPs, was used to investigate the role of MMPs in an in vitro wound contraction model, the dermal equivalent, in which fibroblasts are grown in a collagen matrix. Marimastat inhibited fibroblast-mediated lattice contraction and this inhibition was reversible upon removal of the inhibitor, indicating that MMPs play an important role in fibroblast-mediated collagen lattice contraction, modelling what may happen when granulation tissue contracts in a healing wound.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme secretase is inhibited by zinc metalloprotease inhibitors and requires its substrate to be inserted in a lipid bilayer.

Mammalian angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE; EC 3.4.15.1) is one of several proteins that exist in both membrane-bound and soluble forms as a result of a post-translational proteolytic processing event. For ACE we have previously identified a metalloprotease (secretase) responsible for this proteolytic cleavage. The effect of a range of structurally related zinc metalloprotease inhibitors on the activity of the secretase has been examined. Batimastat (BB94) was the most potent inhibitor of the secretase in pig kidney microvillar membranes, displaying an IC50 of 0.47 microM, whereas TAPI-2 was slightly less potent (IC50 18 microM). Removal of the thienothiomethyl substituent adjacent to the hydroxamic acid moiety or the substitution of the P2' substituent decreased the inhibitory potency of batimastat towards the secretase. Several other non-hydroxamate-based collagenase inhibitors were without inhibitory effect on the secretase, indicating that ACE secretase is a novel zinc metalloprotease that is realted to, but distinct from, the matrix metalloproteases. The full-length amphipathic form of ACE was labelled selectively with 3-trifluoromethyl-3-(m-[125I]iodophenyl)diazirine in the membrane-spanning hydrophobic region. Although trypsin was able to cleave the hydrophobic anchoring domain from the bulk of the protein, there was no cleavage of full-length ACE by a Triton X-100-solubilized pig kidney secretase preparation when the substrate was in detergent solution. In contrast, the Triton X-100-solubilized secretase preparation released ACE from pig intestinal microvillar membranes, which lack endogenous secretase activity, and cleaved the purified amphipathic form of ACE when it was incorporated into artificial lipid vesicles. Thus the secretase has an absolute requirement for its substrate to be inserted in a lipid bilayer, a factor that might have implications for the development of cell-free assays for other membrane protein secretases. ACE secretase could be solubilized from the membrane with Triton-X-100 and CHAPS, but not with n-octyl beta-D-glucopyranoside. Furthermore trypsin could release the secretase from the membrane, implying that like its substrate, ACE, it too is a stalked integral membrane protein.

Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin 1 in neuronal cells: evidence for localization to the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment.

The recently identified Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin 1 and 2 (PS1 and PS2) genes encode two homologous multi membrane-spanning proteins. Rabbit antibodies to the N-terminal domain of PS1 detected PS1 in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y wild type and PS1 transfectants (SY5Y-PS1) as well as in mouse P19, in CHO-K1 and CHO-APP770 transfected cells, in rat cerebellar granule and hippocampal neurons, and astrocytes. Immunoblotting detected full-length protein of 50 kDa, and a major presumptive cleavage product of 30 kDa. The immunofluorescence pattern resembled labeling of the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) marker protein ERGIC-53. PS1 distribution showed slight condensation after brefeldin A and more marked condensation after incubation of cells at 16 degrees C, characteristic of the ERGIC compartment. Double labeling showed colocalization of ERGIC-53 with PS1 in the SY5Y-PS1 cells. PS1 labeling of SY5Y-PS1 and P19 cells showed overlap of the cis-Golgi marker p210 and colocalization with p210 after brefeldin A which causes redistribution of p210 to the ERGIC. Expression of PS1 did not change in level or cellular distribution during development of neurons in culture. Double labeling for the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and PS1 on SY5Y-PS1 cells and CHO-APP770 cells showed some overlap under control conditions. These results indicate that PS1 is a resident protein of the ERGIC and could be involved in trafficking of proteins, including APP, between the ER and Golgi compartments.

Membrane protein secretases.

A diverse range of membrane proteins of Type 1 or Type II topology also occur as a circulating, soluble form. These soluble forms are often derived from the membrane form by proteolysis by a group of enzymes referred to collectively as 'secretases' or 'sheddases'. The cleavage generally occurs close to the extracellular face of the membrane, releasing physiologically active protein. This secretion process also provides a mechanism for down-regulating the protein at the cell surface. Examples of such post-translational proteolysis are seen in the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein, the vasoregulatory enzyme angiotensin converting enzyme, transforming growth factor-alpha, the tumour necrosis factor ligand and receptor superfamilies, certain cytokine receptors, and others. Since the proteins concerned are involved in pathophysiological processes such as neurodegeneration, apoptosis, oncogenesis and inflammation, the secretases could provide novel therapeutic targets. Recent characterization of these individual secretases has revealed common features, particularly sensitivity to certain metalloprotease inhibitors and upregulation of activity by phorbol esters. It is therefore likely that a closely related family of metallosecretases controls the surface expression of multiple integral membrane proteins. Current knowledge of the various secretases are compared in this Review, and strategies for cell-free assays of such proteases are outlined as a prelude to their ultimate purification and cloning.

Presenilin-1 is processed into two major cleavage products in neuronal cell lines.

Presenilin-1 (PS-1) has been identified as the protein encoded by the chromosome 14 locus that, when mutated, leads to familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). Using PS-1 transfected SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells, we have demonstrated by immunodetection, using polyclonal antibodies, that PS-1 is processed to give two fragments: an N-terminal 28 kDa fragment, and a C-terminal 18 kDa fragment. In a number of non-transfected cell types, most PS-1 is detected as the cleaved products. The molecular weights of the PS-1 cleavage products suggest that the cleavage point will most probably be within a region of the hydrophilic loop domain coded for by either exon 8 or 9 of the PS-1 gene. The clustering of FAD mutations within exon 8 strongly suggests that it encodes a key functional domain. It seems likely that the cleavage of PS-1 is crucial to some aspect of its functionality. An understanding of this process will give insights into the pathology of AD, and may offer new opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Alteration in brain presenilin 1 mRNA expression in early onset familial Alzheimer's disease.

The expression of the presenilin 1 (PS-1) gene has been investigated by in situ hybridization in early onset familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD), late onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) and normal control brain. Mutations in this gene are responsible for chromosome 14-linked FAD. We have found that presenilin 1 mRNA is present throughout the human brain with a distribution consistent with both a glial and neuronal localization. The in situ hybridization pattern was similar for the controls, the early onset FAD cases and the late onset AD cases. However, one of the two forms of the mRNA for PS-1, the long form (which contains a sequence encoding a four amino acid (VRSQ) insert at its 5' end) was significantly reduced in early onset FAD brain compared with late onset AD. We suggest that this long transcript may alter the normal pathway for processing of amyloid precursor protein, the protein which appears to be central in the pathogenesis of AD.

Collagen degradation within subcutaneous air pouches in vivo: the effects of proteinase inhibitors.

A straightforward in vivo model of collagen degradation is described that can be used to measure the effects of different classes of proteinase inhibitors. Air pouches, formed subcutaneously in the dorsal thoracic region of rats, were inflamed 6 to 8 days later by injecting lambda-type carrageenan. 14C-Collagen was injected into the air pouches either 1 day before or 1 day after lambda-carrageenan-induced inflammation: in the latter case, the inflammatory exudate fluid was drained from the air pouches immediately prior to administering 14C-collagen. Ninety percent of the 14C-collagen was degraded and cleared within 3 days from pre-inflamed air pouches, but degradation was much slower from the post-inflamed or non-inflamed air pouches. Proteinase inhibitors injected simultaneously with the 14C-collagen, and again 6 hr later, reduced the extent of 14C-collagen degradation from air pouches measured after 24 hr. Forty-two percent of the degradation of 14C-collagen could be inhibited by a mixture of enzyme inhibitors (leupeptin, alpha 1-anti-proteinase, aprotinin, and pepstatin) injected together with 1,10 phenanthroline, the zinc metalloenzyme inhibitor. The 1,10 phenanthroline alone caused a 33% inhibition of 14C-collagen degradation, and the inhibitor mixture given alone inhibited 14C-collagen loss by 25%. Approximately 60% of the degradation of 14C-collagen in this model was mediated by mechanisms resistant to this combination of proteinase inhibitors, which may indicate the significant involvement of non-enzymic modalities, or degradation in intracellular compartments inaccessible to extracellular agents.

In vivo model of cartilage degradation--effects of a matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a model of cartilage degradation that (i) enables the testing of synthetic, small molecular weight matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors as agents to prevent cartilage erosion, (ii) permits the direct assay of the principal constituents of the extracellular matrix (collagen and proteoglycan) in both the non-calcified articular cartilage and the calcified cartilage compartments, and (iii) is mediated by a chronic, granulomatous tissue that closely apposes intact articular cartilage, and in this respect resembles the pannus-cartilage junction of rheumatoid arthritis. METHODS: Femoral head cartilage was obtained from donor rats, wrapped in cotton and implanted subcutaneously into recipient animals. After a two stage papain digestion procedure, the proteoglycan and collagen contents were measured by assaying for glycosaminoglycans and hydroxyproline, respectively, in both the non-calcified cartilage that comprises the articular surface layer and the calcified cartilage compartment. The incorporation in vitro of [35S]-sulphate into glycosaminoglycans was assayed as a measure of proteoglycan biosynthesis. An osmotic minipump was cannulated to the implanted femoral head cartilage and synthetic MMP inhibitors (MI-1 and MI-2) were infused continuously over a 14 day period. RESULTS: The implanted, cotton wrapped femoral head cartilages provoked a granulomatous response that resulted in the removal of collagen and proteoglycan from the cartilage matrix. The removal of proteoglycan and collagen was exclusively from the non-calcified articular cartilage, whereas the proteoglycan and collagen content of the calcified compartment increased during the experiments. MI-1 reproducibly reduced the degradation of proteoglycan and collagen in implanted femoral head cartilage. CONCLUSIONS: We have described an in vivo model of cartilage degradation that permits the measurement of proteoglycan and collagen in both non-calcified articular cartilage and calcified cartilage compartments. The model can be used to test the effects of agents of unknown systemic bioavailability and pharmacokinetic profile by infusing them directly to the site of cartilage degradation. The removal of cartilage extracellular matrix by granulomatous tissue was inhibited by an MMP inhibitor, thus proving the involvement of this family of proteinases in cartilage catabolism in this model.

A simple in vivo model of collagen degradation using collagen-gelled cotton buds: the effects of collagenase inhibitors and other agents.

A simple in vivo model of collagen degradation has been developed, and the effects of various agents have been tested. Type I collagen was prepared from rat skin and acetylated with either [3H]- or [14C] acetic anhydride. The radiolabelled collagen was added to sterile cotton buds and incubated at 37 degrees C to allow the collagen to form native fibrils that were firmly adsorbed to the cotton matrix. After subcutaneous implantation of the collagen-gelled cotton buds into rats, the radiolabelled collagen was progressively removed over a period of weeks by an infiltrating granuloma. Of the agents that were administered directly into the cotton buds using subcutaneously implanted osmotic mini-pumps, only the synthetic collagenase inhibitors CI-A (containing a hydroxamate moiety as a zinc ligand) and CI-C (containing a thiol moiety as a zinc ligand) were able to prevent the removal of collagen: their efficacy correlated with the level of collagenase inhibitory activity assayed in the exudate fluid sequestered within the cotton bud granuloma. Of the agents that were administered systemically, including anti-inflammatory drugs and other compounds used as therapies for arthritis, only hydrocortisone was able to inhibit the removal of radiolabelled collagen. These results suggest that, in this model, interstitial collagenase, a member of the matrix metalloproteinase family, comprised the major degradative pathway for collagen. The collagen-gelled cotton bud model is a useful test system for delineating those processes that result in collagen catabolism. In addition, the model can be used for testing agents, including those of limited or unknown systemic bioavailability, in order to discover novel therapeutic agents for preventing collagen degradation in connective tissue diseases such as arthritis.