A little frog leaps a long way: compounded colonizations of the Indian Subcontinent discovered in the tiny Oriental frog genus Microhyla (Amphibia: Microhylidae).

Frogs of the genus Microhyla include some of the world's smallest amphibians and represent the largest radiation of Asian microhylids, currently encompassing 50 species, distributed across the Oriental biogeographic region. The genus Microhyla remains one of the taxonomically most challenging groups of Asian frogs and was found to be paraphyletic with respect to large-sized fossorial Glyphoglossus. In this study we present a time-calibrated phylogeny for frogs in the genus Microhyla, and discuss taxonomy, historical biogeography, and morphological evolution of these frogs. Our updated phylogeny of the genus with nearly complete taxon sampling includes 48 nominal Microhyla species and several undescribed candidate species. Phylogenetic analyses of 3,207 bp of combined mtDNA and nuDNA data recovered three well-supported groups: the Glyphoglossus clade, Southeast Asian Microhyla II clade (includes M. annectens species group), and a diverse Microhyla I clade including all other species. Within the largest major clade of Microhyla are seven well-supported subclades that we identify as the M. achatina, M. fissipes, M. berdmorei, M. superciliaris, M. ornata, M. butleri, and M. palmipes species groups. The phylogenetic position of 12 poorly known Microhyla species is clarified for the first time. These phylogenetic results, along with molecular clock and ancestral area analyses, show the Microhyla-Glyphoglossus assemblage to have originated in Southeast Asia in the middle Eocene just after the first hypothesized land connections between the Indian Plate and the Asian mainland. While Glyphoglossus and Microhyla II remained within their ancestral ranges, Microhyla I expanded its distribution generally east to west, colonizing and diversifying through the Cenozoic. The Indian Subcontinent was colonized by members of five Microhyla species groups independently, starting with the end Oligocene-early Miocene that coincides with an onset of seasonally dry climates in South Asia. Body size evolution modeling suggests that four groups of Microhyla have independently achieved extreme miniaturization with adult body size below 15 mm. Three of the five smallest Microhyla species are obligate phytotelm-breeders and we argue that their peculiar reproductive biology may be a factor involved in miniaturization. Body size increases in Microhyla-Glyphoglossus seem to be associated with a burrowing adaptation to seasonally dry habitats. Species delimitation analyses suggest a vast underestimation of species richness and diversity in Microhyla and reveal 15-33 undescribed species. We revalidate M. nepenthicola, synonymize M. pulverata with M. marmorata, and provide insights on taxonomic statuses of a number of poorly known species. Further integrative studies, combining evidence from phylogeny, morphology, advertisement calls, and behavior will result in a better systematic understanding of this morphologically cryptic radiation of Asian frogs.

The Re-discovery of live populations of Cnemaspis tropidogaster (Boulenger, 1885) (Sauria, Gekkonidae) from Sri Lanka after 120 years.

Gonatodes kandianus var. tropidogaster was described by Boulenger (1885) with only "Ceylon" (=Sri Lanka) as its locality. This taxon was later assigned to the genus Cnemaspis and then recorded from many different parts of the country. Misleading taxonomic publications and muddled nomenclatural issues has since rendered its taxonomic position unclear. Recent studies have revealed, however, that C. tropidogaster is a species complex, and the species and its types have been redescribed. Unfortunately, no live populations of this species have been recorded until now. Here we report the rediscovery of live populations of this species 120 years after its last collection date records. C. tropidogaster was rediscovered from a low elevation (50-80 m asl.) of the wet zone of Sri Lanka. The rediscovered population was attributed to C. tropidogaster on the basis of a suite of matching morphometric and meristic characters that distinguish C. tropidogaster from other Sri Lankan Cnemaspis.

Taxonomy of two endemic Indian skinks, Eutropis bibronii (Gray, 1838)and E. nagarjunensis (Sharma, 1969) (Reptilia: Scincidae), including redescriptions of their types.

Tiliqua bibronii was described by J.E. Gray in December, 1838 based on two syntypes (MNHN-RA 2940, 7076), but the details for locality was missing. These syntypes are currently housed at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris, France (MNHN-RA). The same species (based on the same type specimens) was described by A.M.C. Duméril & G. Bibron in November, 1839 nearly one year after Gray's publication. As such, Gray's publication must therefore be given priority. Another species, Euprepis trilineatus, from Madras, Tamil Nadu, India, was described by Gray in 1846, and it is morphologically similar to E. bibronii. Later, Boulenger (1885) synonymised it with E. bibronii. Eutropis bibronii has subsequently been recorded from other parts of India and Sri Lanka by various authors. Many years later, a closely related species, Mabuya nagarjuni (sic) Sharma, 1969, was described from Andhra Pradesh, India, based on two specimens (a holotype and a paratype) housed at the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (ZSI). Here we make a correction for the species epithet as "nagarjunensis" which should be a toponym, not a patronym. Among the skink collections at the Natural History Museum, London (BMNH), ZSI, and MNHN-RA we found E. bibronii specimens collected from various locations in India, but we were unable to find any specimens from Sri Lanka. Based on morphological evidence, E. bibronii represents a single, fairly widespread, species which has to be considered endemic to India. Although, recent phylogenetic studies reveal a distinct genetic divergence between E. bibronii and E. nagarjunensis, both species are morphologically very similar to each other. Here, we examine the morphology of E. nagarjunensis based on the ZSI specimens. A comprehensive comparison between the syntypes of E. bibronii and Euprepis trilineatus confirms that the latter nomen is a junior synonym of the former. The original description of E. bibronii is extremely concise and lacks most of the important diagnostic characters, so here we provide a comprehensive redescription of the species based on the examination of its syntypes.

Taxonomy and natural history of Eutropis beddomei (Jerdon, 1870) (Reptilia: Scincidae), including a redescription of the holotype.

Euprepes beddomei was described by Jerdon (1870) from "Mysore" (Karnataka State, India). Simultaneously, Euprepes (Tiliqua) septemlineatus, which is morphologically similar to E. beddomei, was described by Blanford (1870) based on a single specimen collected from the Ganga River Valley, Southeast Berar, Madhya Pradesh, India. Smith (1935) synonymised the latter species (published in September, 1870) with Euprepes beddomei which in turn was published earlier (March, 1870). Jerdon's publication should therefore be given priority. A comprehensive comparison between the holotypes of the above two species confirms that E. septemlineatus is a junior synonym of E. beddomei. Based on morphological characters, Eutropis beddomei is here clearly identified and can be considered a widespread species in India and Sri Lanka. The original description of E. beddomei is very short and lacks a description containing most of the important diagnostic characters; hence, we hereby provide a comprehensive description of the species based on the examination of its holotype.

Two new species of the genus Sitana Cuvier, 1829 (Reptilia: Agamidae) from Sri Lanka, including a taxonomic revision of the Indian Sitana species.

The genus Sitana was described by Cuvier (1829) on the basis of a single species, S. ponticeriana. The secondly described, Sitana minor Günther, 1864, is identical to S. ponticeriana Cuvier, 1829, and should be considered as a junior objective synonym of the latter. The syntypes of S. deccanensis Jerdon, 1870 have been rediscovered, misplaced among the syntypes of S. minor (sensu Boulenger 1885) at the Natural History Museum (London) and the former taxon is here recognised as a valid species and redescribed. There is some doubt surrounding the taxon Sitana ponticeriana mucronata Deraniyagala, 1957. Its type is lost and no live populations have been found since its original description; therefore, we here consider this trinomen as a nomen dubium. The Sitana populations which are distributed in drier and warmer areas of the lower peneplain of Sri Lanka are sufficiently different from the known Indian species and are thus herein described as new species. The two new species, Sitana bahiri sp. nov. and Sitana devakai sp. nov., differ from mainland Indian congeners by having the following combination of characters: SVL 40.0-50.0 mm; axilla-dewlap length 28.3-32.5% of axilla-groin length; snout length 54.7-63.2% of head width; femur length 70.6-78.4% of tibia length; foot length 154.7-180.2% of head length; 49-59 midbody scales; 87-108 ventral scales; unequal and irregular lateral scales with intermediate enlarged scales; 7-9 supralabials; 14-17 subdigital lamellae on toe III; 21-26 subdigital lamellae on toe IV; enlarged scales above the tympanum; a single pale stripe from the snout up to the shoulder. Sitana bahiri sp. nov. differs from Sitana devakai sp. nov. by having ventrals 87-89 (vs. 100-108), mucronate lateral scales (vs. rounded) in males, and rounded (vs. mucronate) ventral scales in females, plus several other characters discussed later . The remaining Sitana populations in India seem to represent several undescribed species, but extensive field work and molecular studies are needed in order to obtain better knowledge. We believe this study, which provides descriptions for all the recognised Indian species, will go some way in stabilizing the nomenclature for this group of common agamid lizards. 

A new species of the genus Calotes (Squamata: Agamidae) from high elevations of the Knuckles massif of Sri Lanka.

A new species of agamid lizard, of the genus Calotes, is described based on morphological evidence. This species is restricted to the Knuckles massif (>900 m elevation) of Sri Lanka. The genus Calotes consists of seven species in Sri Lanka, five of which appear to form an endemic radiation. The new species most closely resembles C. liocephalus Günther, 1872 which has an isolated population in the central highlands and is only known from Pundaluoya (~1000m), Dickoya (~1200m), Upcot (~1400m), Agrapatanas (1665m) and Peak Wilderness (Sri Pada) (>1400m). The populations from Pundaluoya and Dickoya appear to be locally extinct from the wild and are known only from museum specimens collected over 120 years ago. Males of the new species are different from males of C. liocephalus because of the absence of a gular pouch; by having mid gular scales smaller in size than those of its counterpart; scales on the snout which are larger in size than those on the occipital and forehead; pectoral scales which are not enlarged; elongated subcaudal scales; slightly carinate and acuminate abdominal scales; and scales on venter which are somewhat larger in size than those on dorsum at the same level. Finally, we also redescribe Calotes liocephalus, and provide a key to the Sri Lankan species of genus Calotes.