Quantifying online citizen science: Dynamics and demographics of public participation in science.

Citizen scientists around the world are collecting data with their smartphones, performing scientific calculations on their home computers, and analyzing images on online platforms. These online citizen science projects are frequently lauded for their potential to revolutionize the scope and scale of data collection and analysis, improve scientific literacy, and democratize science. Yet, despite the attention online citizen science has attracted, it remains unclear how widespread public participation is, how it has changed over time, and how it is geographically distributed. Importantly, the demographic profile of citizen science participants remains uncertain, and thus to what extent their contributions are helping to democratize science. Here, we present the largest quantitative study of participation in citizen science based on online accounts of more than 14 million participants over two decades. We find that the trend of broad rapid growth in online citizen science participation observed in the early 2000s has since diverged by mode of participation, with consistent growth observed in nature sensing, but a decline seen in crowdsourcing and distributed computing. Most citizen science projects, except for nature sensing, are heavily dominated by men, and the vast majority of participants, male and female, have a background in science. The analysis we present here provides, for the first time, a robust 'baseline' to describe global trends in online citizen science participation. These results highlight current challenges and the future potential of citizen science. Beyond presenting our analysis of the collated data, our work identifies multiple metrics for robust examination of public participation in science and, more generally, online crowds. It also points to the limits of quantitative studies in capturing the personal, societal, and historical significance of citizen science.

Long distance laser filamentation using Yb:YAG kHz laser.

In the framework of the Laser Lightning Rod project, whose aim is to show that laser-induced filaments can guide lightning discharges over considerable distances, we study over a distance of 140 m the filaments created by a laser system with J-range pulses of 1 ps duration at 1 kHz repetition rate. We investigate the spatial evolution of the multiple filamentation regime using the fundamental beam at 1030 nm or using combination with the second and third harmonics. The measurements were made using both a collimated beam and a loosely focused beam.

Laser-guided lightning.

Lightning discharges between charged clouds and the Earth's surface are responsible for considerable damages and casualties. It is therefore important to develop better protection methods in addition to the traditional Franklin rod. Here we present the first demonstration that laser-induced filaments-formed in the sky by short and intense laser pulses-can guide lightning discharges over considerable distances. We believe that this experimental breakthrough will lead to progress in lightning protection and lightning physics. An experimental campaign was conducted on the Säntis mountain in north-eastern Switzerland during the summer of 2021 with a high-repetition-rate terawatt laser. The guiding of an upward negative lightning leader over a distance of 50 m was recorded by two separate high-speed cameras. The guiding of negative lightning leaders by laser filaments was corroborated in three other instances by very-high-frequency interferometric measurements, and the number of X-ray bursts detected during guided lightning events greatly increased. Although this research field has been very active for more than 20 years, this is the first field-result that experimentally demonstrates lightning guided by lasers. This work paves the way for new atmospheric applications of ultrashort lasers and represents an important step forward in the development of a laser based lightning protection for airports, launchpads or large infrastructures.

Smooth velocity fields for tracking climate change.

Describing the spatial velocity of climate change is essential to assessing the challenge of natural and human systems to follow its pace by adapting or migrating sufficiently fast. We propose a fully-determined approach, "MATCH", to calculate a realistic and continuous velocity field of any climate parameter, without the need for ad hoc assumptions. We apply this approach to the displacement of isotherms predicted by global and regional climate models between 1950 and 2100 under the IPCC-AR5 RCP 8.5 emission scenario, and show that it provides detailed velocity patterns especially at the regional scale. This method thus favors comparisons between models as well as the analysis of regional or local features. Furthermore, the trajectories obtained using the MATCH approach are less sensitive to inter-annual fluctuations and therefore allow us to introduce a trajectory regularity index, offering a quantitative perspective on the discussion of climate sinks and sources.

Multi-column modelling of lake Geneva for climate applications.

The interaction between large inland water bodies and the atmosphere impacts the evolution of regional weather and climate, which in turn affects the lake dynamics, thermodynamics, ice-formation, and, therefore, ecosystems. Over the last decades, various approaches have been used to model lake thermodynamics and dynamics in standalone mode or coupled to numerical atmospheric models. We assess a turbulence-closure [Formula: see text] multi-column lake model in standalone mode as a computationally-efficient alternative to a full three-dimensional hydrodynamic model in the case of Lake Geneva. While it struggles to reproduce some short-term features, the multi-column model reasonably reproduces the seasonal mean of the thermal horizontal and vertical structures governing heat and mass exchanges between the lake surface and the lower atmosphere (stratified period, thermocline depth, stability of the water column). As it requires typically two orders of magnitude less computational ressources, it may allow a two-way coupling with a RCM on timescales or spatial resolutions where full 3D lake models are too demanding.

Saturation of rogue wave amplification over steep shoals.

Shoaling surface gravity waves induce rogue wave formation. Though commonly reduced to water waves passing over a step, nonequilibrium physics allows finite slopes to be considered in this problem. Using nonhomogeneous spectral analysis of a spatially varying energy density ratio, we describe the dependence of the amplification as a function of the slope steepness. Increasing the slope increases the amplification of rogue wave probability until this amplification saturates at steep slopes. In contrast, the increase of the down slope of a subsequent de-shoal zone leads to a monotonic decrease in the rogue wave probability, thus featuring a strong asymmetry between shoaling and de-shoaling zones. Due to the saturation of the rogue wave amplification at steep slopes, our model is applicable beyond its range of validity up to a step, thus elucidating why previous models based on a step could describe the physics of steep finite slopes. We also explain why the rogue wave probability increases over a shoal while it is lower in shallower water.

Stabilization of Unsteady Nonlinear Waves by Phase-Space Manipulation.

We introduce a dynamic stabilization scheme universally applicable to unidirectional nonlinear coherent waves. By abruptly changing the waveguiding properties, the breathing of wave packets subject to modulation instability can be stabilized as a result of the abrupt expansion a homoclinic orbit and its fall into an elliptic fixed point (center). We apply this concept to the nonlinear Schrödinger equation framework and show that an Akhmediev breather envelope, which is at the core of Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-Tsingou recurrence and extreme wave events, can be frozen into a steady periodic (dnoidal) wave by a suitable variation of a single external physical parameter. We experimentally demonstrate this general approach in the particular case of surface gravity water waves propagating in a wave flume with an abrupt bathymetry change. Our results highlight the influence of topography and waveguide properties on the lifetime of nonlinear waves and confirm the possibility to control them.

HV discharges triggered by dual- and triple-frequency laser filaments.

We study the use of frequency upconversion schemes of near-IR picosecond laser pulses and compare their ability to guide and trigger electric discharges through filamentation in air. Upconversion, such as Second Harmonic Generation, is favorable for triggering electric discharges for given amount of available laser energy, even taking into account the losses inherent to frequency conversion. We focus on the practical question of optimizing the use of energy from a given available laser system and the potential advantage to use frequency conversion schemes.

Quantitative analysis of self-organized patterns in ombrotrophic peatlands.

We numerically investigate a diffusion-reaction model of an ombrotrophic peatland implementing a Turing instability relying on nutrient accumulation. We propose a systematic and quantitative sorting of the vegetation patterns, based on the statistical analysis of the numbers and filling factor of clusters of both Sphagnum mosses and vascular plants. In particular, we define the transition from Sphagnum-percolating to vascular plant-percolating patterns as the nutrient availability is increased. Our pattern sorting allows us to characterize the peatland pattern stability under climate stress, including strong drought.

Amplification of intense light fields by nearly free electrons.

Light can be used to modify and control properties of media, as in the case of electromagnetically induced transparency or, more recently, for the generation of slow light or bright coherent XUV and X-ray radiation. Particularly unusual states of matter can be created by light fields with strengths comparable to the Coulomb field that binds valence electrons in atoms, leading to nearly-free electrons oscillating in the laser field and yet still loosely bound to the core [1,2]. These are known as Kramers-Henneberger states [3], a specific example of laser-dressed states [2]. Here, we demonstrate that these states arise not only in isolated atoms [4,5], but also in rare gases, at and above atmospheric pressure, where they can act as a gain medium during laser filamentation. Using shaped laser pulses, gain in these states is achieved within just a few cycles of the guided field. The corresponding lasing emission is a signature of population inversion in these states and of their stability against ionization. Our work demonstrates that these unusual states of neutral atoms can be exploited to create a general ultrafast gain mechanism during laser filamentation.

Remote electrical arc suppression by laser filamentation: erratum.

A correction in the transit time of electrons between the filaments and the electrodes leads us to reattribute the remote unloading to ions rather than to electrons. The experimental results reported in [Opt. Express23, 286407 (2015)] about remote electrical unloading and discharge suppression, as well as the analogy with the analogy with a supercorona, remain valid.

Linearity of charge measurement in laser filaments.

We evaluate the linearity of three electric measurement techniques of the initial electron density in laser filaments by comparing their results for a pair of filaments and for the sum of each individual filament. The conductivity measured between two plane electrodes in a longitudinal configuration is linear within 2 % provided the electric field is kept below 100 kV/m. Furthermore, simulations show that the signal behaves like the amount of generated free electrons. The slow ionic current measured with plane electrodes in a parallel configuration is representative of the ionic charge available in the filament, after several µs, when the free electrons have recombined. It is linear within 2 % with the amount of ions and is insensitive to misalignment. Finally, the fast polarization signal in the same configuration deviates from linearity by up to 80 % and can only be considered as a semi-qualitative indication of the presence of charges, e.g., to characterize the filament length.

Time-resolved monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adsorbed on atmospheric particles.

Real-time monitoring of individual particles from atmospheric aerosols was performed by means of a specifically developed single-particle fluorescence spectrometer (SPFS). The observed fluorescence was assigned to particles bearing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). This assignment was supported by an intercomparison with classical speciation on filters followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. As compared with daily averaged data, our time-resolved approach provided information about the physicochemical dynamics of the particles. In particular, distinctions were made between background emissions related to heating, and traffic peaks during rush hours. Also, the evolution of the peak fluorescence wavelength provided an indication of the aging of the particles during the day.

Assessing the Dynamics of Organic Aerosols over the North Atlantic Ocean.

The influence of aerosols on climate is highly dependent on the particle size distribution, concentration, and composition. In particular, the latter influences their ability to act as cloud condensation nuclei, whereby they impact cloud coverage and precipitation. Here, we simultaneously measured the concentration of aerosols from sea spray over the North Atlantic on board the exhaust-free solar-powered vessel "PlanetSolar", and the sea surface physico-chemical parameters. We identified organic-bearing particles based on individual particle fluorescence spectra. Organic-bearing aerosols display specific spatio-temporal distributions as compared to total aerosols. We propose an empirical parameterization of the organic-bearing particle concentration, with a dependence on water salinity and sea-surface temperature only. We also show that a very rich mixture of organic aerosols is emitted from the sea surface. Such data will certainly contribute to providing further insight into the influence of aerosols on cloud formation, and be used as input for the improved modeling of aerosols and their role in global climate processes.

Recurrence in the high-order nonlinear Schrödinger equation: A low-dimensional analysis.

We study a three-wave truncation of the high-order nonlinear Schrödinger equation for deep-water waves (also named Dysthe equation). We validate the model by comparing it to numerical simulation; we distinguish the impact of the different fourth-order terms and classify the solutions according to their topology. This allows us to properly define the temporary spectral upshift occurring in the nonlinear stage of Benjamin-Feir instability and provides a tool for studying further generalizations of this model.

Laser vaporization of cirrus-like ice particles with secondary ice multiplication.

We investigate the interaction of ultrashort laser filaments with individual 90-µm ice particles, representative of cirrus particles. The ice particles fragment under laser illumination. By monitoring the evolution of the corresponding ice/vapor system at up to 140,000 frames per second over 30 ms, we conclude that a shockwave vaporization supersaturates the neighboring region relative to ice, allowing the nucleation and growth of new ice particles, supported by laser-induced plasma photochemistry. This process constitutes the first direct observation of filament-induced secondary ice multiplication, a process that strongly modifies the particle size distribution and, thus, the albedo of typical cirrus clouds.

Remote electrical arc suppression by laser filamentation.

We investigate the interaction of narrow plasma channels formed in the filamentation of ultrashort laser pulses, with a DC high voltage. The laser filaments prevent electrical arcs by triggering corona that neutralize the high-voltage electrodes. This phenomenon, that relies on the electric field modulation and free electron release around the filament, opens new prospects to lightning and over-voltage mitigation.

Non-linear photochemical pathways in laser-induced atmospheric aerosol formation.

We measured the chemical composition and the size distribution of aerosols generated by femtosecond-Terawatt laser pulses in the atmosphere using an aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS). We show that nitric acid condenses in the form of ammonium nitrate, and that oxidized volatile organics also contribute to particle growth. These two components account for two thirds and one third, respectively, of the dry laser-condensed mass. They appear in two different modes centred at 380 nm and 150 nm. The number concentration of particles between 25 and 300 nm increases by a factor of 15. Pre-existing water droplets strongly increase the oxidative properties of the laser-activated atmosphere, substantially enhancing the condensation of organics under laser illumination.

Quantification of Motion Palpation.

CONTEXT: The palpation of motions is at the heart of the practice of foreign-trained osteopaths. When practicing osteopathic manual therapy (care provided by foreign-trained osteopaths) in the cranial field or osteopathic cranial manipulative medicine, the palpation of small motions (several tens of micrometers) is a key process. However, to the authors' knowledge, the smallest detectable motion has not been identified. OBJECTIVE: To quantify motion detection capacity by passive palpation. METHODS: Participants were instructed to hold a mechanical device containing a micrometric actuator between their hands and report when they felt motion while 6 series of 27 random motions were generated by the actuator. After each series, if a participant succeeded or failed to detect motion with a confidence level of greater than 98%, the motions in the next series were set to a smaller or larger magnitude, respectively. After 6 series, the individual motion detection capacity was recorded. Statistical significance was set at P=.02. RESULTS: A total of 21 participants were selected, comprising 14 osteopaths and 7 nonosteopaths. The average performance of the sample was 148 µm. Thirteen participants (62%) perceived motions of 200 µm or less, and 7 participants (33%) detected motions of 50 µm or less with bare hands. Osteopathic training did not notably affect the performance. Osteopaths were twice as likely to claim detection of nonexisting motions than to miss existing ones, whereas nonosteopaths were equally subject to both types of errors. CONCLUSION: The data show human passive palpatory sensitivity to be in the range of several tens of micrometers. This range is comparable to that reported for calvarial motion (10-50 µm).

Laser-induced plasma cloud interaction and ice multiplication under cirrus cloud conditions.

Potential impacts of lightning-induced plasma on cloud ice formation and precipitation have been a subject of debate for decades. Here, we report on the interaction of laser-generated plasma channels with water and ice clouds observed in a large cloud simulation chamber. Under the conditions of a typical storm cloud, in which ice and supercooled water coexist, no direct influence of the plasma channels on ice formation or precipitation processes could be detected. Under conditions typical for thin cirrus ice clouds, however, the plasma channels induced a surprisingly strong effect of ice multiplication. Within a few minutes, the laser action led to a strong enhancement of the total ice particle number density in the chamber by up to a factor of 100, even though only a 10(-9) fraction of the chamber volume was exposed to the plasma channels. The newly formed ice particles quickly reduced the water vapor pressure to ice saturation, thereby increasing the cloud optical thickness by up to three orders of magnitude. A model relying on the complete vaporization of ice particles in the laser filament and the condensation of the resulting water vapor on plasma ions reproduces our experimental findings. This surprising effect might open new perspectives for remote sensing of water vapor and ice in the upper troposphere.