Brief communication: Carrier rate, antimicrobial resistance and molecular typing of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in healthy dogs from Morogoro, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and S. aureus are important pathogens in dogs. This study established carrier rates, strain diversity and antimicrobial resistance of these bacteria among healthy dogs in Tanzania. RESULTS: Based on cultures of mouth and perineal swabs, 11.3% and 50.3% of 151 healthy dogs were carriers of S. aureus and S. pseudintermedius, respectively. Only four dogs (3%) carried meticillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), while none of the S. pseudintermedius strains were meticillin-resistant. 12 of 19 S. aureus strains tested were resistant to penicillin G, and resistance to enrofloxacin and tetracycline was also commonly detected. The most common resistances in 103 S. pseudintermedius strains tested were to penicillin G (28.2%) and tetracycline (22.3%). S. pseudintermedius strains showed 65 different random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) fingerprints, and S. aureus strains belonged to eight different spa types, including two novel types (t18988 and t18989). MRSA strains carried SCCmec type V. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Healthy dogs in Tanzania were carriers of MRSA at low frequency, and half of the dogs carried S. pseudintermedius with high strain diversity.

Arthropod Ectoparasites of Two Rodent Species Occurring in Varied Elevations on Tanzania's Second Highest Mountain.

Climate change causes organisms, including species that act as parasite reservoirs and vectors, to shift their distribution to higher altitudes, affecting wildlife infestation patterns. We studied how ectoparasite distributions varied with altitude using two rodent species, Montemys delectorum and Rhabdomys dilectus, at different elevations (1500-3500 m). The ectoparasites infesting the two rodent species were influenced by the host sex, species, and temperature. We expected host density to predict parasite infestation patterns, because hosts in higher densities should have more parasites due to increased contact between individuals. However, temperature, not host density, affected ectoparasite distribution. Since temperatures decrease with elevation, parasite prevalences and abundances were lower at higher elevations, highlighting that the cold conditions at higher elevations limit reproduction and development-this shows that higher elevation zones are ideal for conservation. The rodents and ectoparasite species described in this study have been reported as vectors of diseases of medical and veterinary importance, necessitating precautions. Moreover, Mount Meru is a refuge for a number of endemic and threatened species on the IUCN Red List. Thus, the parasitic infection can also be an additional risk to these critical species as well as biodiversity in general. Therefore, our study lays the groundwork for future wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation management actions. The study found a previously uncharacterized mite species in the Mesostigmata group that was previously known to be a parasite of honeybees. Further investigations may shed light into the role of this mite species on Mount Meru.

Arenavirus infection correlates with lower survival of its natural rodent host in a long-term capture-mark-recapture study.

BACKGROUND: Parasite evolution is hypothesized to select for levels of parasite virulence that maximise transmission success. When host population densities fluctuate, low levels of virulence with limited impact on the host are expected, as this should increase the likelihood of surviving periods of low host density. We examined the effects of Morogoro arenavirus on the survival and recapture probability of multimammate mice (Mastomys natalensis) using a seven-year capture-mark-recapture time series. Mastomys natalensis is the natural host of Morogoro virus and is known for its strong seasonal density fluctuations. RESULTS: Antibody presence was negatively correlated with survival probability (effect size: 5-8% per month depending on season) but positively with recapture probability (effect size: 8%). CONCLUSIONS: The small negative correlation between host survival probability and antibody presence suggests that either the virus has a negative effect on host condition, or that hosts with lower survival probability are more likely to obtain Morogoro virus infection, for example due to particular behavioural or immunological traits. The latter hypothesis is supported by the positive correlation between antibody status and recapture probability which suggests that risky behaviour might increase the probability of becoming infected.

Antibiotic susceptibilities of indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterococci spp. isolated from ducks in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterococci isolated from duck faeces in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania. RESULTS: Escherichia coli and Enterococcus isolation rates from ducks faeces were 91 and 100% respectively. The prevalence of antibiotic resistance of E. coli and Enterococcus was 70.3 and 42%, respectively. E. coli resistant to four antibiotics were 28 (30.8%) and showed high resistance to ampicillin (81.3), tetracycline (75.8) and trimethoprim-sulphamethoxine (62.3). Multiple antibiotic resistance of Enterococcus were more than 65%. High resistance rates shown by Enterococcus were observed in rifampin (62%), ampicillin (62%) and tetracycline (42%). Almost all farmers (92.3%) left their ducks to scavenge for food around their houses. Antibiotics used in animal treatments were oxytetracyclines, sulfonamides, penicillin dihydrostreptomycin while in humans were tetracycline, ampicillin, and amoxicillin.

First Report on a Randomized Investigation of Antimicrobial Resistance in Fecal Indicator Bacteria from Livestock, Poultry, and Humans in Tanzania.

This study provides an estimate of antimicrobial resistance in intestinal indicator bacteria from humans (n = 97) and food animals (n = 388) in Tanzania. More than 70% of all fecal samples contained tetracycline (TE), sulfamethoxazole (STX), and ampicillin (AMP)-resistant coliforms, while cefotaxime (CTX)-resistant coliforms were observed in 40% of all samples. The average Log10 colony forming units/g of CTX-resistant coliforms in samples from humans were 2.20. Of 390 Escherichia coli tested, 66.4% were resistant to TE, 54.9% to STX, 54.9% to streptomycin, and 36.4% to CTX. Isolates were commonly (65.1%) multiresistant. All CTX-resistant isolates contained blaCTX-M gene type. AMP- and vancomycin-resistant enterococci were rare, and the average concentrations in positive samples were low (log10 0.9 and 0.4, respectively). A low-to-moderate resistance (2.1-15%) was detected in 240 enterococci isolates to the drugs tested, except for rifampicin resistance (75.2% of isolates). The average number of sulII gene copies varied between Log10 5.37 and 5.68 with no significant difference between sample source, while cattle had significantly higher number of tetW genes than humans. These findings, based on randomly obtained samples, will be instrumental in designing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) intervention strategies for Tanzania.

Entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana reduce the survival of Xenopsylla brasiliensis larvae (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

BACKGROUND: Entomopathogenic fungi, particularly those belonging to the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria have shown great promise as arthropod vector control tools. These agents, however, have not been evaluated against flea vectors of plague. FINDINGS: A 3-h exposure to the fungi coated paper at a concentration of 2 × 108 conidia m-2 infected >90% of flea larvae cadavers in the treatment groups. The infection reduced the survival of larvae that had been exposed to fungus relative to controls. The daily risk of dying was four- and over three-fold greater in larvae exposed to M. anisopliae (HR = 4, p<0.001) and B. bassiana (HR = 3.5, p<0.001) respectively. Both fungi can successfully infect and kill larvae of X. brasiliensis with a pooled median survival time (MST±SE) of 2 ± 0.31 days post-exposure. CONCLUSION: These findings justify further research to investigate the bio-control potential of entomopathogenic fungi against fleas.