Adult skin acute stress responses to short-term environmental and internal aggression from exposome factors.

Exposome factors that lead to stressed skin can be defined as any disturbance to homeostasis from environmental (meteorological factors, solar radiation, pollution or tobacco smoke) and/or internal exposure (unhealthy diet, hormonal variations, lack of sleep, psychosocial stress). The clinical and biological impact of chronic exposome effects on skin functions has been extensively reviewed, whereas there is a paucity of information on the impact of short-term acute exposure. Acute stress, which would typically last minutes to hours (and generally no more than a week), provokes a transient but robust neuroendocrine-immune and tissue remodelling response in the skin and can alter the skin barrier. Firstly, we provide an overview of the biological effects of various acute stressors on six key skin functions, namely the skin physical barrier, pigmentation, defences (antioxidant, immune cell-mediated, microbial and microbiome maintenance), structure (extracellular matrix and appendages), neuroendocrine and thermoregulation functions. Secondly, we describe the biological and clinical effects on adult skin from individual exposome factors that elicit an acute stress response and their consequences in skin health maintenance. Clinical manifestations of acutely stressed skin may include dry skin that might accentuate fine lines, oily skin, sensitive skin, pruritus, erythema, pale skin, sweating, oedema and flares of inflammatory skin conditions such as acne, rosacea, atopic dermatitis, pigmentation disorders and skin superinfection such as viral reactivation. Acute stresses can also induce scalp sensitivity, telogen effluvium and worsen alopecia.

Clinical and biological impact of the exposome on the skin.

The skin exposome is defined as the totality of environmental exposures over the life course that can induce or modify various skin conditions. Here, we review the impact on the skin of solar exposure, air pollution, hormones, nutrition and psychological factors. Photoageing, photocarcinogenesis and pigmentary changes are well-established consequences of chronic exposure of the skin to solar radiation. Exposure to traffic-related air pollution contributes to skin ageing. Particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide cause skin pigmentation/lentigines, while ozone causes wrinkles and has an impact on atopic eczema. Human skin is a major target of hormones, and they exhibit a wide range of biological activities on the skin. Hormones decline with advancing age influencing skin ageing. Nutrition has an impact on numerous biochemical processes, including oxidation, inflammation and glycation, which may result in clinical effects, including modification of the course of skin ageing and photoageing. Stress and lack of sleep are known to contribute to a pro-inflammatory state, which, in turn, affects the integrity of extracellular matrix proteins, in particular collagen. Hormone dysregulation, malnutrition and stress may contribute to inflammatory skin disorders, such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, acne and rosacea.

Sugar Sag: Glycation and the Role of Diet in Aging Skin.

First described in the context of diabetes, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are formed through a type of non-enzymatic reaction called glycation. Increased accumulation of AGEs in human tissue has now been associated with end stage renal disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and, recently, skin aging. Characteristic findings of aging skin, including decreased resistance to mechanical stress, impaired wound healing, and distorted dermal vasculature, can be in part attributable to glycation. Multiple factors mediate cutaneous senescence, and these factors are generally characterized as endogenous (e.g., telomere shortening) or exogenous (e.g., ultraviolet radiation exposure). Interestingly, AGEs exert their pathophysiological effects from both endogenous and exogenous routes. The former entails the consumption of sugar in the diet, which then covalently binds an electron from a donor molecule to form an AGE. The latter process mostly refers to the formation of AGEs through cooking. Recent studies have revealed that certain methods of food preparation (i.e., grilling, frying, and roasting) produce much higher levels of AGEs than water-based cooking methods such as boiling and steaming. Moreover, several dietary compounds have emerged as promising candidates for the inhibition of glycation-mediated aging. In this review, we summarize the evidence supporting the critical role of glycation in skin aging and highlight preliminary studies on dietary strategies that may be able to combat this process.

Cornifying Darier's disease.

A 48-year-old Caucasian man recounted the onset of keratotic papules on the trunk at the age of 8 years, with subsequent spread to the forearms, scalp, and forehead. His most severe disease was present on the legs. He complained of pain, itching, and noted exacerbations in the summer and with sweating. The family history was negative. On physical examination, the most striking finding was that of extensive, markedly hyperkeratotic plaques on the lower legs >(Fig. 1). His scalp, forehead, chest, and back exhibited mild involvement, with scattered brown keratotic papules, while his forearms showed mildly hyperkeratotic plaques. Flat-topped brown papules were present on the dorsum of the hands, with a few keratotic papules on the palms, and a few nails with distal notching and red longitudinal streaks. There were no palmar pits or oral mucosal lesions. A shave biopsy was performed of a plaque on the leg, and showed a papillomatous and markedly hyperkeratotic lesion >(Fig. 2). Suprabasal acantholysis in the elongated rete produced characteristic lacunae. The acantholysis was associated with dyskeratosis including corps ronds and grains >(Fig. 3). Together, these features were characteristic of Darier's disease. Treatment years earlier with topical retinoids, topical steroids, topical keratolytics, and multiple oral antimicrobials had been unsuccessful, and isotretinoin had been discontinued due to elevated triglycerides. Treatment was initiated with acitretin and, after 3 months, mild improvement was noted

Lichen planus.

Lichen planus is an inflammatory mucocutaneous condition with characteristic violaceous polygonal flat-topped papules and plaques. Pruritus is often severe. Skin lesions may be disfiguring, and involvement of the oral mucosa or genital mucosa in severe cases may be debilitating. Oral lichen planus may predispose to the development of squamous cell carcinoma within lesions. Involvement of the scalp and the nails may also occur. While most cases of lichen planus are idiopathic, some may be caused by the ingestion of certain medications (e.g., gold, antimalarial agents, penicillamine, thiazide diuretics, beta blockers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, quinidine and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors) or linked to hepatitis C virus infection. Patients with localized lichen planus are usually treated with potent topical steroids, while systemic steroids are used to treat patients with generalized lichen planus.

Sarcoidosis of the scalp: a case series and review of the literature.

Sarcoidosis of the scalp is a rare manifestation of cutaneous sarcoidosis. We report 4 cases, all in African-American women with systemic sarcoidosis. A review of the English-language literature reveals only 24 reported cases, most in African-American women with systemic involvement and other cutaneous lesions. Scalp sarcoidosis may exhibit variable morphologies and therefore must be kept in the differential diagnosis of plaques or nodules of the scalp as well as both cicatricial and noncicatricial alopecia.

Taking aim at erythema multiforme. How to spot target lesions and less typical presentations.

Erythema multiforme is a distinct cutaneous condition characterized by target lesions. Most cases are associated with HSV infection, which may be subclinical. When the classic target lesions are absent, skin biopsy may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment is directed at suppressing outbreaks of HSV infection and controlling symptoms during acute episodes.

Angioma serpiginosum with extensive cutaneous involvement.

Angioma serpiginosum is a rare condition that involves both the proliferation and dilatation of superficial blood vessels in the skin. It classically begins in childhood, is more common in females, and is asymptomatic. Typical lesions appear on the extremities and are often asymmetric. We report a case of angioma serpiginosum involving extensive areas of the extremities and the trunk to emphasize that extensive cutaneous involvement must be included in the clinical spectrum of this condition.

Atraumatic ischaemic myelopathy.

Significant and permanent neurological deficit due to ischaemic myelopathy continues to occur in 5-10 per cent of patients following surgery on the thoracic aorta for aneurysms, coarctation and lacerations, and following corrective surgery for scoliosis. Clinical features, patterns of neurological deficit, management and outcome in 29 patients with atraumatic ischaemic myelopathy following surgery on the aorta, aortocoronary bypass and cardiogenic shock, will be presented. Pertinent literature on the subject will also be reviewed.