Physical and Affective Physical Literacy Domains Improved After a Six-Week Exergame Exercise Program in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial.

Introduction: We investigated the effects of an exergames-based exercise program for older adults, and its benefits on their physical literacy (PL) domains, such as physical (mobility skills), affective (motivation and confidence), cognitive (knowledge about physical activity [PA]), and behavioral (daily exertion) when compared with a conventional exercise program and no training (NT) (control). Material and Methods: Forty older adults (mean age 72 years) volunteered and were randomized within three groups-exergame training (ET; n = 15), conventional training (CT; n = 14), and NT (n = 11). ET group performed training sessions based on a commercially available exergame console, while the CT group enrolled in a convention exercise program (aerobic, strength, balance, and flexibility exercises). The training program was conducted three times a week for 6 weeks. The Timed Up and Go Test (TUG), Exercise Confidence Survey (ECS), Motives for Physical Activity Measure-Revised (MPAM-R), Knowledge and Understanding Questionnaire (K&UQ), and total PA tracking (using wearable technology) were used as the study's outcomes. Outcome variables were measured at preintervention (week 0), postintervention (week 6), and at the time of final follow-up (week 9). Results: We observed a reduction in the ET TUG time at postintervention and follow-up. Also, a significant main effect for group and moment of measurement was observed for the Fitness-Health subscore, derived from MPAM-R. The values demonstrated by ET and CT were statistically different (P = 0.01) and a within-group comparison revealed significant differences in the ET from preintervention to both postintervention and follow-up (both, P = 0.01). We did not observe any other significant difference. Conclusion: Our results suggest that a 6-week exergame-based training program may have the potential in improving the physical and affective domains of PL in community-dwelling older adults. The topics related to fitness and health seem to be of interest in this population and programs can make use of them to improve the PL domains.

Effect of proximity to females on integument damage caused by self-enurination in male goats.

In male goats, self-enurination (SE) is the downward turning of the head and shoulders while urinating onto the face and front legs. Although it provides important chemical cues to females, other males, and even self, it is a costly behavior that can create a range of problems including erythema, irritation, hair loss, and compromised skin. It was hypothesized that the extent of integument damage from SE on bucks' faces and front legs would be increased by housing bucks near females. Four bucks were housed with fence-line contact to females ("Near" bucks), and four bucks were housed without fence-line contact to females ("Far" bucks). Each buck was photographed every other week over an 18-wk period during the breeding season. During each imaging session, seven different photographic views were captured, and burn areas were quantified for each buck. Overall, more Near bucks had urine burn than Far bucks, and Near bucks developed urine burn earlier in the breeding season than did Far bucks. Housing bucks close to females increases the extent of integument damage from SE. These findings may help goat breeders develop management practices to improve animal well-being by minimizing urine burn injury to bucks.

Older Adults' Perceptions of the Usefulness of Technologies for Engaging in Physical Activity: Using Focus Groups to Explore Physical Literacy.

Insufficient physical activity (PA) levels observed among older adults remain extremely high and pose a danger to developing and maintaining their physical literacy (PL). Each person's level of PL partly depends on their physical and cognitive skills, confidence level, and degree of motivation to practice PA daily. New technologies, such as exergames and wearable fitness trackers, may enable older adults to increase their PL, stimulating uptake and ongoing PA participation. Objective: This focus group study aims to describe older adults' perceptions of the use of technologies to engage in physical exercise programs. Methods: Fifteen participants were randomly selected from a sample of 40 older adults who completed a randomized controlled trial that investigated the benefits of using technology in the context of group-based exercise programs. Separate post-intervention focus groups were performed with an exergaming group, a conventional physical training group, and a no training group (control). Data were mapped onto constructs from the four domains of PL: affective, physical, cognitive, and behavioral. Results: Generally, participants expressed positive perceptions about the benefits of using technology to engage in PA. These positive feelings outweighed the costs and the lack of familiarization with technology. Common themes for the three groups emerged from the discussions and included familiarization with technology, using fitness tracker to monitor PA, previous exposure to technology, and interaction with peers, staff members, and relatives. In particular, participants from the exergaming group explored the ideas of training their cognitive skills while using the exergame accessories, exercising in an alternative way, competitive versus cooperative play, changes in sense of humor, skill transferability from game to real environment, progressions of the exercise intensities, and the potential use of exergames for rehabilitation. Conclusions: Participants in this study reported positive perceptions about implementing technology into exercise. Emphasizing the benefits of using technology in group-based exercise programs may increase older adults' PL levels and their future technology adoption. The potential implementation of technology into conventional exercise programs should focus on older adults' lifelong values, biopsychosocial conditions, and the possibility of reducing age-related risk of injuries and chronic diseases.

Differential effects of androgens, estrogens and socio-sexual context on sexual behaviors in the castrated male goat.

The behavioral and endocrine activation of sexual behaviors exhibited by male goats, especially self-enurination (SE), is poorly understood. In the first experiment, to assess the influence of socio-sexual context on SE in bucks, the effects of distance from does, the presence of estrous versus non-estrous does and the presence of another buck on SE and courtship frequencies of intact male goats (bucks; n = 12) were tested using a unique behavior test apparatus. For experiments 2 and 3, to test the relative contributions of sex steroid hormones and socio-sexual context on SE, castrated male goats (wethers; n = 20) were randomly divided into five groups and injected for seven weeks with one of the following: 25 mg testosterone propionate (T), 25 mg dihydrotestosterone propionate (DHT), 100 µg estradiol benzoate (E), 100 µg E and 25 mg DHT (E + DHT), or oil (CON). The effects of these treatments on frequency of SE and courtship were assessed using the behavior test apparatus (social scenarios) adapted from the findings in experiment 1. In one scenario, a wether could observe (from 4.6 m) a buck and estrous female (doe) together in a wire mesh holding pen. In a different scenario, the wether could observe (from the same distance) a buck that could only court the estrous doe through a wire mesh barrier. Finally, to observe the effects of steroid treatment on mounting and ejaculation frequencies, in addition to SE and courtship, each wether was placed in a pen with an estrous doe for 10 min. After a five-week, treatment-washout period, wethers were randomly assigned to different treatment groups and retested. In experiment 1, bucks that were distanced from females displayed more SEs than those with fence-line contact, while those with fence-line contact displayed more bouts of courtship (P < 0.05). In experiments 2 and 3, courtship frequencies displayed in all three scenarios were greater than CON only for groups exposed to estrogen directly or via aromatization (T, E + DHT, E; P < 0.05). Frequencies of SE exhibited during behavior tests in which the wether was watching were greater than CON only for androgen-treated groups (T, E + DHT, DHT; P < 0.05). In contrast, when the wether was free to interact with the female, only the DHT group displayed SE at a higher frequency than CON (P < 0.05). Treatment had no effect on mount frequencies in this test scenario, however ejaculation frequencies were highest for T and E + DHT (P < 0.05). These studies suggest that the courtship behaviors of the male goat are estrogen-dependent. However, SE appears to be activated by androgens. It was also demonstrated that social context contributes as much to behavior expression as steroid treatment, as in social scenario 2 some sexual behaviors were displayed in similar frequencies across groups, despite differing sex steroid treatments.

Key determinants of time to 5†m in different ventral swimming start techniques.

The aim of this study was to determine the biomechanical parameters that explain ventral start performance in swimming. For this purpose, 13 elite swimmers performed different variants of the ventral start technique. Two-dimensional video analyses of the aerial and underwater phases were used to assess 16 kinematic parameters from the starting signal to 5 m, and an instrumented starting block was used to assess kinetic data. A Lasso regression was used to reduce the number of parameters, providing the main determinants to starting performance, revealing different combinations of key determinants, depending on the variant (r² ≥ 0.90), with flight distance being the most relevant to all variants (r ≤ -0.80; p < .001). Also, special attention should be given to the total horizontal impulse in the grab start (r = -0.79; p < .001) and to the back foot action in the track and kick starts (r ≤ 0.61; p < .001). In addition, we provide two equations that could be easily used to predict starting performance by assessing block time and flight time (r² = 0.66) or block time and flight distance (r² = 0.83). These data provide relevant contributions to the further understanding of the biomechanics of swimming starts as well as insights for performance analysis and targeted interventions to improve athlete performance.

Comparison of Polar M600 Optical Heart Rate and ECG Heart Rate during Exercise.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the Polar M600 optical heart rate (OHR) sensor compared with ECG heart rate (HR) measurement during various physical activities. METHODS: Thirty-six subjects participated in a continuous 76-min testing session, which included rest, cycling warm-up, cycling intervals, circuit weight training, treadmill intervals, and recovery. HR was measured using a three-lead ECG configuration and a Polar M600 Sport Watch on the left wrist. Statistical analyses included OHR percent accuracy, mean difference, mean absolute error, Bland-Altman plots, and a repeated-measures generalized estimating equation design. OHR percent accuracy was calculated as the percentage of occurrences where OHR measurement was within and including ±5 bpm from the ECG HR value. RESULTS: Of the four exercise phases performed, the highest OHR percent accuracy was found during cycle intervals (91.8%), and the lowest OHR percent accuracy occurred during circuit weight training (34.5%). OHR percent accuracy improved steadily within exercise transitions during cycle intervals to a maximum of 98.5% and during treadmill intervals to a maximum of 89.0%. Lags in HR calculated by the Polar M600 OHR sensor existed in comparison to ECG HR, when exercise intensity changed until steady state occurred. There was a tendency for OHR underestimation during intensity increases and overestimation during intensity decreases. No statistically significant interaction effect with device was found in this sample on the basis of sex, body mass index, V˙O2max, skin type, or wrist size. CONCLUSIONS: The Polar M600 was accurate during periods of steady-state cycling, walking, jogging, and running, but less accurate during some exercise intensity changes, which may be attributed to factors related to total peripheral resistance changes and pulse pressure.

Kinematic and kinetic analysis of overhand, sidearm and underhand lacrosse shot techniques.

Lacrosse requires the coordinated performance of many complex skills. One of these skills is shooting on the opponents' net using one of three techniques: overhand, sidearm or underhand. The purpose of this study was to (i) determine which technique generated the highest ball velocity and greatest shot accuracy and (ii) identify kinematic and kinetic variables that contribute to a high velocity and high accuracy shot. Twelve elite male lacrosse players participated in this study. Kinematic data were sampled at 250 Hz, while two-dimensional force plates collected ground reaction force data (1000 Hz). Statistical analysis showed significantly greater ball velocity for the sidearm technique than overhand (P < 0.001) and underhand (P < 0.001) techniques. No statistical difference was found for shot accuracy (P > 0.05). Kinematic and kinetic variables were not significantly correlated to shot accuracy or velocity across all shot types; however, when analysed independently, the lead foot horizontal impulse showed a negative correlation with underhand ball velocity (P = 0.042). This study identifies the technique with the highest ball velocity, defines kinematic and kinetic predictors related to ball velocity and provides information to coaches and athletes concerned with improving lacrosse shot performance.

Validity of a portable force platform for assessing biomechanical parameters in three different tasks.

The aim of this study was to determine the precision and accuracy of the vertical and anterior-posterior force components of the portable PASCO PS-2142 force plate. Impulse, peak force, and time to peak force were assessed and compared to a gold standard force plate in three different tasks: vertical jump, forward jump, and sprint start. Two healthy male participants performed ten trials for each task, resulting in 60 trials. Data analyses revealed good precision and accuracy for the vertical component of the portable force plate, with relative bias and root mean square (RMS) error values nearly the same in all tasks for the impulse, time to peak force, and peak force parameters. Precision and accuracy of the anterior-posterior component were lower for the impulse and time to peak force, with relative bias and RMS error values nearly the same between tasks. Despite the lower precision and accuracy of the anterior-posterior component of the portable force plate, these errors were systematic, reflecting a good repeatability of the measure. In addition, all variables presented good agreement between the portable and gold standard platforms. Our results provide a good perspective for using the aforementioned portable force plate in sports and clinical biomechanics.

Validity and reliability of the Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool (SOAT): a variation of the traditional objective structured clinical examination.

CONTEXT: Health care professions have replaced traditional multiple choice tests or essays with structured and practical, performance-based examinations with the hope of eliminating rater bias and measuring clinical competence. OBJECTIVE: To establish the validity and reliability of the Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool (SOAT) as a measure of clinical competence of orthopaedic injury evaluation. DESIGN: Descriptive laboratory study. SETTING: University. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: A total of 60 undergraduate students and 11 raters from 3 Canadian universities and 1 standardized patient. INTERVENTION(S): Students were required to complete a 30-minute musculoskeletal evaluation in 1 of 2 randomly assigned mock scenarios involving the knee (second-degree medial collateral ligament sprain) or the shoulder (third-degree supraspinatus muscle strain). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): We measured interreliability with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) (2,k) and stability of the tool with standard error of measurement and confidence intervals. Agreement was measured using Bland-Altman plots. Concurrent validity was measured using a Pearson product moment correlation coefficient whereby the raters' global rating of a student was matched to the cumulative mean grade score. RESULTS: The ICCs were 0.75 and 0.82 for the shoulder and knee cases, respectively. Bland-Altman plots indicated no systematic bias between raters. In addition, Pearson product moment correlation analysis demonstrated a strong relationship between the overall cumulative mean grade score and the global rating score of the examinees' performances. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated good interrater reliability of the SOAT with a standard error of measurement that indicated very modest stability, strong agreement between raters, and correlation indicative of concurrent validity.

Seasonal variation of urinary microRNA expression in male goats (Capra hircus) as assessed by next generation sequencing.

Testosterone plays a key role in preparation of a male domesticated goat (Capra hircus) to breeding season including changes in the urogenital tract of a male goat (buck). microRNAs are important regulators of cellular metabolism, differentiation and function. They are powerful intermediaries of hormonal activity in the body, including the urogenital tract. We investigated seasonal changes in expression of microRNAs in goat buck urine and their potential consequences using next generation sequencing (microRNA-Seq). We determined the location of each microRNA gene in the goat genome. Testosterone was measured by radioimmunoassay and the androgen receptor binding sites (ARBS) in the promoters of the microRNA genes were determined by MatInspector. The overall impact of regulated microRNAs on cellular physiology was assessed by mirPath. We observed high testosterone levels during the breeding season and changes in the expression of forty microRNAs. Nineteen microRNAs were upregulated, while twenty-one were downregulated. We identified several ARBS in the promoters of regulated microRNAs. Notably, the mostly inhibited microRNA, miR-1246, has a unique set of several gene copy variants associated with a cluster of androgen receptor binding sites. Concomitant changes in regulated microRNA expression could promote transcription, proliferation and differentiation of urogenital tract cells. Together, these findings indicate that in a domesticated goat (Capra hircus), there are specific changes in the microRNA expression profile in buck urine during breeding season, which could be attributable to high testosterone levels during breeding, and could help in preparation of the urogenital tract for high metabolic demands of that season.

Female goats use courtship display as an honest indicator of male quality.

Due to the differential cost of reproduction in promiscuous species, like domesticated goat(s) (Capra hircus), it is expected that females should mate with higher quality males, while males should mate with a greater number of females. Females may use conspicuous secondary sexual characteristics of males such as courtship display to distinguish among high and low quality males. Testosterone (T) controls a large suite of secondary sexual characteristics and variation in T concentrations may account of differences in courtship rates. Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between T concentrations and courtship rate and its role in mammalian female mate choice. Experiment 1 utilized bucks (intact males) and Experiment 2 utilized T-replaced wethers (castrated pre-pubertally). During the first year of Experiment 2, T-replaced wethers received either vehicle control (CON), 25mg or 100mg testosterone propionate (TP). During the second year of Experiment 2, T-replaced wethers were treated with either 5mg, 15 mg or 25mg TP. For all experiments, mean courtship rates and circulating T concentrations were measured, as well as female preference for males displaying different courtship frequencies. T concentrations and courtship rate were positively correlated for bucks and estrous females preferred high courting bucks. Males receiving 25mg and 100mg TP courted females at a similar rate, but both were significantly higher than courtship rates of the CON wethers. Courtship rates of the 25mg, 15 mg and 5mg TP-treated males were all significantly different. Females did not show a preference between the 100mg or 25mg TP-treated wethers, however both were preferred in comparison to the CON wethers. Females did not show preference between the 25mg or 15 mg TP-treated wethers, however both were preferred in comparison to the 5mg TP-treated wethers. Taken together, these studies suggest that courtship rate is T-dependent. Further, females can use courtship rate to distinguish among males.

Female tail wagging enhances sexual performance in male goats.

Preference testing has shown that sexually experienced male goats choose females that are tail wagging, a behavior that may function as both attractivity and proceptivity, over those that are not. We hypothesized that exposure to females expressing high rates of tail wagging would arouse males, increasing sexual performance. Tail wagging rate could be manipulated because we have shown previously that flutamide treatment increases the frequency of tail wagging in estrous goats. Sexually experienced males observed different stimuli for 10 min before a 20 min sexual performance test (SPT). The stimuli were an empty pen (MT), or groups of three females that were all estrous (E), non-estrous (NE), estrous+flutamide (E(F)) or non-estrous+flutamide (NE(F)). During the stimulus observation period, tail wagging was recorded. During SPT, frequencies and latencies of sexual behaviors were recorded. E(F) females displayed the most tail wagging. Viewing E(F) females before SPT increased the number of ejaculations attained by males and decreased the latencies to first and second ejaculation, as well as the inter-ejaculatory interval. Viewing estrous females (E and E(F)) before SPT decreased the latency to first mount, as compared to non-estrous females (NE and NE(F)). We conclude that male goats are sexually aroused by tail wagging. This study and previous work demonstrate that tail wagging functions as both attractivity and proceptivity in goats.

Estrous female goats use testosterone-dependent cues to assess mates.

In a promiscuous species like the domestic goat (Capra hircus), in which maternal investment is greater than paternal investment, a female may mate selectively with a more-fit male to improve her reproductive fitness. Testosterone (T) controls a large suite of male-typical behaviors and morphological characteristics. High T concentrations may be energetically costly or even detrimental to survival; thus, preventing lower quality males from falsely advertising their fitness. Three preference studies were conducted to examine if females use T-dependent cues to assess potential mates. For Experiment 1, females were given a choice between a pair of morphologically similar males, bucks (intact males) and stags (post-pubertally castrated males), during the breeding and non-breeding seasons. In both seasons, females preferred the bucks compared to stags. In Experiment 2, females were given a choice between bucks, stags and wethers (pre-pubertally castrated males) during the non-breeding season. For some comparisons, castrated males received 25 mg testosterone propionate (TP) or were untreated. Females preferred TP-treated males compared to untreated males and showed no preference when given a choice between either two TP-treated or two untreated males. In Experiment 3, females were given a choice between a pair of bucks and a pair of stags treated with 25 mg TP during monthly tests in the breeding season. At each monthly test, females preferred the males with higher T concentrations near the time of the behavior test. These studies suggest that females use T-dependent cues to assess potential mates, and T concentrations may indicate a male's overall fitness.

Partner preference: assessing the role of the female goat.

For domestic ruminants, the male is thought to have the control over mate choice. The aim of this study was to assess the potential role the female goat plays in choosing a sexual partner. Approach frequency and proximity time to various social or sexual stimuli in a Y-maze apparatus were used as partner preference assessment parameters. Ovariectomized females were either induced into estrus (n=8) or induced into anestrus (n=8) and exposed to various goal stimuli - intact unfamiliar females (estrous and diestrous), intact males, and neutral (empty) in six separate trials. Total arm entries and time spent within one body length of the goal (proximity time - used to calculate preference scores) were recorded for subjects. With a male present, anestrous subjects had significantly more total arm entries than estrous subjects. Estrous subjects showed a significant preference for the male goal (M) versus the estrous female (ES), diestrous female (DS), and empty goals, respectively. Estrous subjects also showed a preference for the ES and DS goals when one goal was left empty. Anestrous subjects showed a preference for the goal containing ES, DS, and M compared to empty goals. They also showed a preference for ES vs. DS. The Y-maze is a tool that can be used to assess sexual and social partner preferences in female goats. The role the female plays in choosing a partner may be much greater than previously considered.

Initial reliability of the Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool (SOAT).

CONTEXT: Orthopaedic assessment skills are critical to the success of athletic therapists and trainers. The Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool (SOAT) has been content validated. OBJECTIVE: To establish interrater reliability of the SOAT. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-two college students, 10 raters, and 2 standardized patients (SPs) from Calgary, Alberta, Canada. DESIGN: Randomized observational study. INTERVENTION(S): Students were allowed 30 minutes to complete a mock orthopaedic assessment of an SP with an injury specific to a region of the body (shoulder, knee, or ankle). Using the region-specific SOAT, raters and SPs evaluated students' orthopaedic assessment skills. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The sum totals of the SOAT for 2 raters and 1 SP were used to calculate each student's performance scores for respective scenarios. Scale reliability analysis (Cronbach alpha) was completed on the SOAT for each of the 3 body-region examinations. RESULTS: The mean overall reliability of 3 SOATs (ie, ankle, knee, and shoulder) was positive: alpha = .85 with the SP scores factored into the equation and alpha = .86 without the SP scores factored into the equation. Reliability for the ankle region was highest (alpha = .91), followed by the knee (alpha = .83) and the shoulder (alpha = .82). CONCLUSIONS: The study sample size was small, but the results will enable further study with generalization to a broader audience of athletic therapists and athletic trainers. Because a baseline measure of reliability was established using a robust statistical analysis, future researchers can employ more stringent statistical analysis and focus on the effects of various pedagogical techniques to teach and learn the underlying construct of clinical competence in orthopaedic assessment.

Variation in male sexual behavior.

Relaxation of natural selection on sexual performance traits in male ruminants has increased phenotypic variation in these heritable traits. Thus, males with sub-standard sexual performance continue to reproduce. This has created a "dud" phenomenon that is costly to animal agriculture. Identification and culling of these lesser performers at an early age and identification of high performing males are critical management goals that must be addressed, and for which greater research priority is needed.

Development of a content-valid standardized orthopedic assessment tool (SOAT).

INTRODUCTION: Content validation of an instrument that measures student performance in OSCE-type practical examinations is a critical step in a tool's overall validity and reliability [Hopkins (1998), Educational and Psychological Measurement and Evaluation (8th ed.). Toronto: Allyn & Bacon]. PURPOSE: The purpose of the paper is to outline the process employed to create a content-valid Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool (SOAT). Orthopedic assessment skills are employed by athletic therapists, physiotherapists and physicians. All follow very similar diagnostic algorithms and that system was used to develop the original SOAT [Cyriax (1982). Textbook of Orthopaedic Medicine, (vol. 1) Bailliere Tindall]. METHODS: To validate the tool, the study followed procedures outlined by Violato, Salami, and Muiznieks (2002), Journal of Manipulative Physiological Therapeutics, 25, 111-115, and Butterwick, Paskevich, Vallevand and Lafave (2006), Journal of Allied Health: a modified Ebel procedure. An expert group of athletic therapists from across Canada were chosen to create the content valid tool. Representation from all accredited athletic therapy programs in Canada was sought. Experts participated in three stages of content validation: Stage one consisted of individuals grading tasks on difficulty (hard, medium, easy) and importance (essential, important, not important) for 8 body regions (cervical spine, lumbar spine, shoulder, elbow, wrist/hand/thumb, hip, knee and lower leg/foot/ankle) and three diagnoses for each body region (24 total). If 80% consensus was not achieved in the first stage, then in stage two, face to face discussion is meant to clarify positions and achieved consensus, if possible. RESULTS: The history component, the observation component, scanning exams, clearing joints above and below the lesion site and active range of motion, passive range of motion and isometric resisted testing all yielded 80% consensus in the first two stages of development. A third stage was added to this process because a new model of measurement was conceptualized during the second stage due to a lack of consensus on two orthopedic assessment categories: special testing and palpation. The new model consisted of a ;;clinical reasoning" metric that tied each section of an orthopedic assessment (history; observation; scanning and clearing; examination, special testing; palpation; conclusion) together and would permit the expert rater to evaluate the student performance based on the student's rationale for tests chosen rather than the traditionally rigid checklists. At least 80% consensus was achieved with the new ;;clinical reasoning" metric and the originally contentious special testing and palpation categories. CONCLUSIONS: The new SOAT that underwent content validation may be a hybrid between the traditional OSCE-type checklists and global scales that provide a more realistic and thus more valid depiction of orthopedic assessment clinical competence. Now that content validation has been established, the next steps include inter-rater reliability testing.

Sexual behavior of domesticated ruminants.

Domesticated ruminants have lived in close association with humans for thousands of years and knowledge of the behavior of these organisms has contributed to their successful domestication, as well as to the management of animals in captivity, both extensive and intensive. Here we describe the reproductive behavioral endocrinology of cattle, goats and sheep. These relatively large and tame animals provide opportunities to conduct a wide range of behavioral studies from short-term to longitudinal or developmental in nature. Highlighted is some of the work from our laboratory describing the social, environmental and endocrine factors that influence the expression of sexual behavior in male and female goats.

Female-female mounting among goats stimulates sexual performance in males.

The hypothesis that female-female mounting is proceptivity in goats, in that male goats are aroused by the visual cues of this mounting behavior, was tested. Once a week, male goats were randomly selected and placed in a test pen in which they were allowed to observe one of six selected social or sexual stimulus conditions. The stimulus conditions were one familiar male with two estrous females (MEE); three estrous females that displayed female-female mounting (E(m)); three estrous females that did not mount (E(nm)); three non-estrous females (N(E)); three familiar males (M); and no animals in the pen (Empty). After 10 min, the stimulus animals were removed, and an estrous female was placed in the test pen with the male for a 20-min sexual performance test. During sexual performance tests, the frequencies and latencies of all sexual behaviors were recorded. This procedure was repeated so all males (n = 6) were tested once each test day, and all the stimulus conditions were presented each test day. This was repeated weekly until all males had been exposed to each stimulus condition. Viewing mounting behavior, whether male-female or female-female, increased the total number of sexual behaviors displayed, increased ejaculation frequency, and decreased latency to first mount and ejaculation, post-ejaculatory interval, and the interval between ejaculations. We conclude that male goats are aroused by the visual cues of mounting behavior, and that female-female mounting is proceptivity in goats.

Divergent roles for estrogens and androgens in the expression of female goat sexual behavior.

We tested the hypothesis that the activation of the androgen receptor (AR) is required for full expression of female goat sexual behavior. Once a week for 6 weeks, ovariectomized (OVX) females were given priming doses of progesterone 72 and 48 h before behavioral observation. Estradiol (E(2); 100 microg), testosterone (T; 100 mg), or sesame oil was supplied 14 h before behavioral testing. Six goats received the AR antagonist flutamide (9 mg/kg sc) 8 h before and 4 h after steroid injection. Six goats received the carrier only. After 3 weeks, flutamide and carrier treatments were switched so that all females received all treatments. Treatments with E(2) and T were equally effective in eliciting estrus-typical behaviors (sniffing, courting, leg kicks, mount attempts by males, bouts of thrusting by males, ejaculations, and flehman responses) compared to treatment with oil. Flutamide treatment enhanced proceptive behaviors in E(2)-treated females compared to other treatment groups; this was most likely via enhanced tail wagging. Moreover, compared to goats given T + carrier, T + flutamide significantly reduced receptivity in females. The results of this experiment implicate the AR as an important facilitator of some aspects of the female goat sexual behavior. However, the results of this experiment do not show whether androgens influence estrous behaviors alone or in some combination with estrogen.