ABSTRACT
Overproduction of reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNS and ROS) has been linked to the pathogenesis of diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, stroke, angina, and other cardiovascular diseases. These species are produced in part by the mitochondrial respiratory chain, NADPH oxidase, and xanthine oxidase. RNS and ROS both contribute to oxidative stress, which is necessary for the development of cardiovascular disorders. In addition to ROS species like hydroxyl ion, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide anion, RNS species like nitric oxide, peroxynitrous acid, peroxynitrite, and nitrogen dioxide radicals have also been linked to a number of cardiovascular conditions. They promote endothelial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, lipid peroxidation, and oxidative damage, all of which contribute to the development of cardiovascular pathologies. It's crucial to understand the mechanisms that result in the production of RNS and ROS in order to identify potential therapeutic targets. Redox biomarkers serve as indicators of oxidative stress, making them crucial tools for diagnosing and predicting cardiovascular states. The advancements in proteomics, metabolomics, genomics, and transcriptomics have made the identification and detection of these small molecules possible. The following redox biomarkers are notable examples: 3-nitrotyrosine, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, 8- iso-prostaglandin F2, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, malondialdehyde, Diacron reactive oxygen metabolites, total thiol, and specific microRNAs (e.g. miRNA199, miRNA21, miRNA1254, miRNA1306-5p, miRNA26b-5p, and miRNA660-5p) are examples. Although redox biomarkers have great potential, their clinical applicability faces challenges. Redox biomarkers frequently have a short half-life and exist in small quantities in the blood, making them challenging to identify and measure. The interpretation of biomarker data may also be influenced by confounding factors and the complex interplay of various oxidative stress pathways. Therefore, in-depth validation studies and the development of sensitive and precise detection methods are needed to address these problems. In the search for redox biomarkers, cutting-edge techniques like mass spectrometry, immunoassays, and molecular diagnostics are applied. New platforms and technologies have made it possible to accurately detect and monitor redox biomarkers, which facilitates their use in clinical settings. Our expanding knowledge of RNS and ROS involvement in cardiovascular disorders has made it possible to develop redox biomarkers as diagnostic and prognostic tools. Overcoming the challenges associated with their utility and utilizing advanced detection techniques, which will improve their clinical applicability, will ultimately benefit the management and treatment of cardiovascular conditions.
