Functional significance of glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier for erythrocyte survival in vitro and in vivo.

Erythrocytes endure constant exposure to oxidative stress. The major oxidative stress scavenger in erythrocytes is glutathione. The rate-limiting enzyme for glutathione synthesis is glutamate-cysteine ligase, which consists of a catalytic subunit (GCLC) and a modifier subunit (GCLM). Here, we examined erythrocyte survival in GCLM-deficient (gclm(-/-)) mice. Erythrocytes from gclm(-/-) mice showed greatly reduced intracellular glutathione. Prolonged incubation resulted in complete lysis of gclm(-/-) erythrocytes, which could be reversed by exogenous delivery of the antioxidant Trolox. To test the importance of GCLM in vivo, mice were treated with phenylhydrazine (PHZ; 0.07 mg/g b.w.) to induce oxidative stress. Gclm(-/-) mice showed dramatically increased hemolysis compared with gclm(+/+) controls. In addition, PHZ-treated gclm(-/-) mice displayed markedly larger accumulations of injured erythrocytes in the spleen than gclm(+/+) mice within 24 h of treatment. Iron staining indicated precipitations of the erythrocyte-derived pigment hemosiderin in kidney tubules of gclm(-/-) mice and none in gclm(+/+) controls. In fact, 24 h after treatment, kidney function began to diminish in gclm(-/-) mice as evident from increased serum creatinine and urea. Consequently, while all PHZ-treated gclm(+/+) mice survived, 90% of PHZ-treated gclm(-/-) mice died within 5 days of treatment. In vitro, upon incubation in the absence or presence of additional oxidative stress, gclm(-/-) erythrocytes exposed significantly more phosphatidylserine, a cell death marker, than gclm(+/+) erythrocytes, an effect at least partially due to increased cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration. Under resting conditions, gclm(-/-) mice exhibited reticulocytosis, indicating that the enhanced erythrocyte death was offset by accelerated erythrocyte generation. GCLM is thus indispensable for erythrocyte survival, in vitro and in vivo, during oxidative stress.

Gender differences in brain susceptibility to oxidative stress are mediated by levels of paraoxonase-2 expression.

Paraoxonase 2 (PON2), a member of a gene family that also includes PON1 and PON3, is expressed in most tissues, including the brain. In mouse brain, PON2 levels are highest in dopaminergic areas (e.g., striatum) and are higher in astrocytes than in neurons. PON2 is primarily located in mitochondria and exerts a potent antioxidant effect, protecting mouse CNS cells against oxidative stress. The aim of this study was to characterize PON2 expression and functions in the brains of male and female mice. Levels of PON2 (protein, mRNA, and lactonase activity) were higher in brain regions and cells of female mice. Astrocytes and neurons from male mice were significantly more sensitive (by 3- to 4-fold) to oxidative stress-induced toxicity than the same cells from female mice. Glutathione levels did not differ between genders. Importantly, no significant gender differences in susceptibility to the same oxidants were seen in cells from PON2(-/-) mice. Treatment with estradiol induced a time- and concentration-dependent increase in the levels of PON2 protein and mRNA in male (4.5-fold) and female (1.8-fold) astrocytes, which was dependent on activation of estrogen receptor-α. In ovariectomized mice, PON2 protein and mRNA were decreased to male levels in brain regions and in liver. Estradiol protected astrocytes from wild-type mice against oxidative stress-induced neurotoxicity, but did not protect cells from PON2(-/-) mice. These results suggest that PON2 is a novel major intracellular factor that protects CNS cells against oxidative stress and confers gender-dependent susceptibility to such stress. The lower expression of PON2 in males may have broad ramifications for susceptibility to diseases involving oxidative stress, including neurodegenerative diseases.

Apoptosis induced by domoic acid in mouse cerebellar granule neurons involves activation of p38 and JNK MAP kinases.

In mouse cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) the marine neurotoxin domoic acid (DomA) induces neuronal cell death, either by apoptosis or by necrosis, depending on its concentration, with apoptotic damage predominating in response to low concentrations (100 nM). DomA-induced apoptosis is due to selective activation of AMPA/kainate receptors, and is mediated by DomA-induced oxidative stress, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and activation of caspase-3. The p38 MAP kinase and the c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK) have been shown to be preferentially activated by oxidative stress. Here we report that DomA increases p38 MAP kinase and JNK phosphorylation, and that this effect is more pronounced in CGNs from Gclm (-/-) mice, which lack the modifier subunit of glutamate-cysteine ligase, have very low glutathione (GSH) levels, and are more sensitive to DomA-induced apoptosis than CGNs from wild-type mice. The increased phosphorylation of JNK and p38 kinase was paralleled by a decreased phosphorylation of Erk 1/2. The AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist NBQX, but not the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801, prevents DomA-induced activation of p38 and JNK kinases. Several antioxidants (GSH ethyl ester, catalase and phenylbutylnitrone) also prevent DomA-induced phosphorylation of JNK and p38 MAP kinases. Inhibitors of p38 (SB203580) and of JNK (SP600125) antagonize DomA-induced apoptosis. These results indicate the importance of oxidative stress-activated JNK and p38 MAP kinase pathways in DomA-induced apoptosis in CGNs.

Glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit promoter polymorphisms and associations with type 1 diabetes age-at-onset and GAD65 autoantibody levels.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) promoter polymorphisms are susceptibility factors for type 1 diabetes (T1D), T1D age-at-onset and T1D autoantibodies. T1D patients and control subjects from the Swedish Childhood Diabetes Registry and the Swedish Diabetes Incidence Study registry were genotyped for two GCLC promoter polymorphisms; the GCLC -129 C to T single nucleotide polymorphism (GCLC -129 SNP) and the GCLC GAG trinucleotide repeat polymorphism (GCLC TNR). Glutamate decarboxylase antibody (GAD65Ab) positive T1D patients with the GCLC -129 SNP C/T genotype have increased GAD65Ab levels (p-value, <0.05) compared to the GCLC -129 SNP C/C genotype. T1D patients with an age-at-onset of 14-35 years who possess the GCLC -129 SNP T/T genotype have a higher GAD65Ab index than T1D patients with the GCLC -129 SNP C/C genotype (p-value <0.05). In addition, T1D patients with an age-at-onset of 14-35 years possess the GCLC TNR 7/8 genotype at a lower frequency than the control subjects (OR, 0.33, 95% CI, 0.13-0.82). The GCLC -129 SNP and GCLC TNR appear to be in linkage disequilibrium (p-value<0.0001). These results suggest that GCLC promoter polymorphisms may influence GAD65Ab levels and may influence the age at which T1D is diagnosed.

Neurotoxicity of domoic Acid in cerebellar granule neurons in a genetic model of glutathione deficiency.

This study investigated the role of cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms in modulating the neurotoxicity of domoic acid (DomA), by using cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) from mice lacking the modifier subunit of glutamate-cysteine ligase (Gclm). Glutamate-cysteine ligase (Glc) catalyzes the first and rate-limiting step in glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis. CGNs from Gclm (-/-) mice have very low levels of GSH and are 10-fold more sensitive to DomA-induced toxicity than CGNs from Gclm (+/+) mice. GSH ethyl ester decreased, whereas the Gcl inhibitor buthionine sulfoximine increased DomA toxicity. Antagonists of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate receptors and of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors blocked DomA toxicity, and NMDA receptors were activated by DomA-induced l-glutamate release. The differential susceptibility of CGNs to DomA toxicity was not due to a differential expression of ionotropic glutamate receptors, as evidenced by similar calcium responses and L-glutamate release in the two genotypes. A calcium chelator and several antioxidants antagonized DomA-induced toxicity. DomA caused a rapid decrease in cellular GSH, which preceded toxicity, and the decrease was primarily due to DomA-induced GSH efflux. DomA also caused an increase in oxidative stress as indicated by increases in reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, which was subsequent to GSH efflux. Astrocytes from both genotypes were resistant to DomA toxicity and presented a diminished calcium response to DomA and a lack of DomA-induced L-glutamate release. Because polymorphisms in the GCLM gene in humans are associated with low GSH levels, such individuals, as well as others with genetic conditions or environmental exposures that lead to GSH deficiency, may be more susceptible to DomA-induced neurotoxicity.

Targeting type 1 diabetes before and at the clinical onset of disease.

Autoimmune type 1 diabetes is strongly associated with a number of immune abnormalities that manifest themselves before and at the time of clinical diagnosis. The clinical onset is associated with a major loss of the pancreatic islet beta cells. Insulin treatment is the only treatment option since numerous trials with agents that suppress or modulate immune function have failed to preserve beta cell function long term. Recent studies suggest that it is possible to predict clinical onset of diabetes by combining genetic with autoantibody testing. In this review we will summarize current and future drug targets for subjects at risk for type 1 diabetes as well as for subjects with recent onset disease. We will also discuss the possible importance of initiating as well as contributing factors such as reactive oxygen species and modified autoantigens. It is speculated that drug targets of factors important to disease pathogenesis may provide safe and effective adductive treatment to preserve beta cell function in autoantibody positive subjects who are at maximum risk for disease.

Regulation of endothelial glutathione by ICAM-1: implications for inflammation.

The role of glutathione (GSH) in inflammation is largely discussed from the context of providing reducing equivalents to detoxify reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Inflammation is now recognized to be an underlying cause of many vascular diseases including atherosclerosis, a disease in which endothelial GSH concentrations are decreased. However, mechanisms that control GSH levels are poorly understood. Key players in the inflammatory process are endothelial adhesion molecules, including intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). This adhesion molecule is present constitutively and can be induced by a variety of inflammatory stimuli. In this study, using mouse aortic endothelial cells (MAEC) deficient in ICAM-1, we demonstrate a novel interplay between constitutive ICAM-1 and cellular GSH. Deficiency of ICAM-1 was associated with an approximately twofold increase in total GSH content. Inhibiting glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL), the enzyme that catalyses the rate-limiting step in GSH biosynthesis, prevented the increase in GSH. In addition, the catalytic subunit of GCL was increased (approximately 1.6-fold) in ICAM-1 deficient relative to wild-type cells, suggesting that constitutive ICAM-1 represses GCL expression. Furthermore, the ratio of reduced (GSH) to oxidized (GSSG) glutathione was also increased suggesting a role for ICAM-1 in modulating cellular redox status. Interestingly, increasing cytosolic GSH in wild-type mouse endothelial cells decreased constitutive ICAM-1, suggesting the presence of an inverse and reciprocal pathway. To test the effects of inducible ICAM-1 on GSH, cells were stimulated with the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha. TNF-alpha stimulated production of ICAM-1, which was however not associated with induction of GSH. In contrast, supplementation of endothelial cells with GSH before TNF-alpha addition, inhibited induction of ICAM-1. These data suggest a novel regulatory pathway between constitutive ICAM-1 and GSH synthesis in the endothelium and are discussed in the context of modulating the inflammatory response.

Enhanced acetaminophen hepatotoxicity in transgenic mice overexpressing BCL-2.

Mitochondria play an important role in the cell death induced by many drugs, including hepatotoxicity from overdose of the popular analgesic, acetaminophen (APAP). To investigate mitochondrial alterations associated with APAP-induced hepatotoxicity, the subcellular distribution of proapoptotic BAX was determined. Based on the antiapoptotic characteristics of BCL-2, we further hypothesized that if a BAX component was evident then BCL-2 overexpression may be hepatoprotective. Mice, either with a human bcl-2 transgene (-/+) or wild-type mice (WT; -/-), were dosed with 500 or 600 mg/kg (i.p.) APAP or a nonhepatotoxic isomer, N-acetyl-m-aminophenol (AMAP). Immunoblot analyses indicated increased mitochondrial BAX-beta content very early after APAP or AMAP treatment. This was paralleled by disappearance of BAX-alpha from the cytosol of APAP treated animals and, to a lesser extent, with AMAP treatment. Early pathological evidence of APAP-induced zone 3 necrosis was seen in bcl-2 (-/+) mice, which progressed to massive panlobular necrosis with hemorrhage by 24 h. In contrast, WT mice dosed with APAP showed a more typical, and less severe, centrilobular necrosis. AMAP-treated bcl-2 (-/+) mice displayed only early microvesicular steatosis without progression to extensive necrosis. Decreased complex III activity, evident as early as 6 h after treatment, correlated well with plasma enzyme activities at 24 h (AST r(2) = 0.89, ALT r(2) = 0.87) thereby confirming a role for mitochondria in APAP-mediated hepatotoxicity. In conclusion, these data suggest for the first time that BAX may be an early determinant of APAP-mediated hepatotoxicity and that BCL-2 overexpression unexpectedly enhances APAP hepatotoxicity.

Localization of glutamate-cysteine ligase mRNA and protein in mouse kidney and induction with methylmercury.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a toxicant that targets the kidney among other tissues. MeHg accumulates in the kidney, where it indirectly produces oxidative stress due to glutathione depletion and leakage of reactive oxygen species from the mitochondria. Glutathione is believed to have an important role in protecting the kidney against MeHg toxicity, and MeHg exposure is known to result in the induction of GSH synthesis through the upregulation of the enzyme glutamate-cysteine ligase (GLCL). GLCL, the rate-limiting enzyme in GSH synthesis, is composed of two subunits, a large catalytic (GLCLc) and a smaller regulatory (GLCLr) subunit. In this study we show that GLCLc and GLCLr mRNAs and GLCLc protein are localized in the paracortical region of the mouse kidney, the area of the kidney with the highest MeHg concentration, and that the upregulation of these mRNAs induced by MeHg is also located to the same region. This supports the role of GLCL in protection against MeHg toxicity in the kidney.

Simultaneous analysis of surface marker expression and cell cycle progression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

One method for examining cell cycle kinetics by flow cytometry uses continuous DNA labeling with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), a thymidine analogue. Upon incorporation into DNA, BrdU causes stoichiometric quenching of the DNA fluorochrome Hoechst 33258. After counterstaining with a secondary DNA fluorochrome (e.g., ethidium bromide), the analyst can distinguish cells in different phases of the cell cycle over a number of mitotic cycles with flow cytometry. In this report, we describe a modification of the flow cytometric BrdU-Hoechst assay that allows combined analysis of cell proliferation and immunophenotyping at the single cell level. To demonstrate an application of this method, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were stimulated with tetanus toxoid or interleukin-2 for up to 6 days in the presence of BrdU, harvested, and immunostained for the cell surface markers CD3, CD4, CD8, CD14, CD19, and the cytokine receptor, CCR5. We used four-color flow cytometry analyses to simultaneously measure cell proliferation and surface marker expression, for the purpose of immunophenotyping and identifying specific cell subsets responding to antigen stimulation. Our successful application of this method suggests that it may be used to study immune responses at the molecular and cellular level and to identify mechanisms of immune system modulation.

Tissue specific changes in the expression of glutamate-cysteine ligase mRNAs in mice exposed to methylmercury.

Glutamate-cysteine ligase (GLCL), the rate-limiting enzyme in glutathione (GSH) synthesis is composed of two subunits, a catalytic (GLCLc) and a regulatory subunit (GLCLr). These two subunits are known to be differentially regulated in vitro, in different cell types and in response to various xenobiotic exposures. In this study, we examined whether these two subunits can also be differentially regulated in vivo. We found that GLCLc and GLCLr are differentially regulated at the transcriptional level in a tissue-dependent manner in female mice treated with methylmercury (MeHg). MeHg caused a downregulation of both subunit mRNAs in the liver, upregulation of both subunit mRNAs in the kidney and upregulation of only the catalytic subunit mRNA in the small intestine of female mice treated with a single dose of MeHg (6 mg/kg) by intraperitoneal injection. These results suggest that GLCLc and GLCLr can be differentially regulated in vivo, and that this regulation is tissue dependent in the mouse.

Gonadotropin regulation of glutathione synthesis in the rat ovary.

Glutathione (GSH), an antioxidant and conjugator of electrophilic toxicants, prevents toxicant-mediated destruction of ovarian follicles and oocytes. Ovarian GSH has previously been shown to change with estrous cycle stage in rats, suggesting that the gonadotropin hormones may regulate ovarian GSH synthesis. The present studies tested the hypotheses that [1] estrous cycle-related changes in ovarian GSH result from cyclic changes in protein and mRNA expression of the rate-limiting enzyme in GSH synthesis, glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL, also called gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase), and [2] that these changes result from gonadotropin-mediated regulation of GCL subunit expression. In the first experiment, ovaries were harvested from cycling adult female rats on each stage of the estrous cycle. In the second experiment immature female rats were injected with pregnant mare's serum gonadotropin (PMSG) to stimulate follicular development or with vehicle and killed 8, 24, or 48 h later. In both experiments the ovaries were harvested for [1] total GSH assay, [2] Western analysis for GCL catalytic (GCLc) and regulatory (GCLm) subunit protein levels, or [3] Northern analysis for Gclc and Gclm mRNA levels. Ovarian GSH concentrations and Gclc and Gclm mRNA levels, but not GCL subunit protein levels, varied significantly with estrous cycle stage. PMSG administration significantly increased ovarian GSH concentrations 24 and 48 h later. GCLm protein levels increased significantly at 24 h and 48 h following PMSG. GCLc protein levels did not increase significantly following PMSG. Gcl subunit mRNA levels were not significantly increased at any time point by the planned ANOVA; however, an increase in Gelc at 48 h was identified by t-testing. These results support the hypothesis that gonadotropins regulate ovarian GSH synthesis by modulating GCL subunit expression.

Analytical cytology: applications to neurotoxicology.

This unit describes methods for analyzing the effects of neurotoxicants on cell cycle regulation by dual parameter flow cytometry and on cell signaling by quantifying intracellular calcium concentrations within individual cells by scanning confocal laser microscopy or using the fluorescent calcium probe fluo-3.

HPLC-based assays for enzymes of glutathione biosynthesis.

Glutamate cysteine ligase and glutathione synthase carry out the two-step synthesis of glutathione. The fluorescent thiol-reactive compound monobromobimane is used to derivatize reaction products in an HPLC-based assay with fluorescence detection. The assay described in this unit can be adapted for tissue homogenates or cultured cells.

Muscarinic receptor-induced calcium responses in astroglia.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to characterize and quantitate the calcium responses to cholinergic stimulation in individual primary rat cortical astrocytes and human 132 1N1 astrocytoma cells. Materials and Methods The fluorescent calcium probe Indo-1 AM and an attached cell analysis and sorting (ACAS) instrument were used to quantitate calcium responses in these cells. RESULTS: A concentration-dependent response to carbachol was seen in both cell types. However, carbachol was more potent and efficacious, and the response was more homogeneous in the cell line. The calcium response was mediated by the M3 subtype of muscarinic receptors. Experiments in the absence of extracellular calcium and with EGTA demonstrated that the initial calcium spike was due to calcium release from intracellular calcium stores, whereas the sustained elevation and oscillations were dependent on calcium influx. Protein kinase C exerts a feedback inhibition of these calcium responses, and appears to be involved in maintaining the elevated calcium concentration and oscillations. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided a detailed quantitation of the changes in intracellular calcium evoked in individual astroglial cells by activation of M3 muscarinic receptors. This will allow for the study of pharmacological and toxicological agents on this response.

Modulation of glutathione and glutamate-L-cysteine ligase by methylmercury during mouse development.

The antioxidant tripeptide glutathione has been proposed to be important in defense against oxidative stress and heavy metal toxicity. We evaluated alterations in glutathione regulation and synthesis associated with low-level chronic methylmercury (MeHg) exposure in the developing mouse fetus. Female C57Bl/6 mice were given 0, 3, or 10 ppm MeHg in the drinking water for 2 weeks prior to breeding and throughout pregnancy. Fetuses were collected on gestational days (gd) 12 and 16. Total glutathione, reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSR), and glutamate-L-cysteine ligase (Glcl) activity were assessed in yolk sacs and fetuses at gd 16. Western and Northern blots for Glcl-catalytic (Glclc) and Glcl-regulatory (Glclr) subunits were performed on gd 12 and gd 16 fetuses. There were no changes in total glutathione in gd 16 mouse fetuses with exposure, but there were dose-related decreases in GSH and increases in GSSR. In contrast, visceral yolk sacs exhibited an increase in total glutathione in the low-dose groups, but no changes in the high-dose group. There were no changes in Glcl activity in fetuses, but there was a 2-fold increase in Glcl activity in yolk sacs from both low-dose and high-dose groups. There was a 2-fold induction in GLCLC: mRNA and protein in the gd 16 yolk sacs at both 3 and 10 ppm MeHg. No treatment-related changes in Glclr protein in either gd 12 or gd 16 yolk sacs or fetuses were found. Thus, the yolk sac is capable of up-regulating Glclc and GSH synthetic capacity in response to MeHg exposure. This increase appears to be sufficient to resist MeHg-induced GSH depletion in the yolk sac; however fetal glutathione redox status is compromised with exposure to 10 ppm MeHg.

Disruption of redox homeostasis in tumor necrosis factor-induced apoptosis in a murine hepatocyte cell line.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a mediator of the acute phase response in the liver and can initiate proliferation and cause cell death in hepatocytes. We investigated the mechanisms by which TNF causes apoptosis in hepatocytes focusing on the role of oxidative stress, antioxidant defenses, and mitochondrial damage. The studies were conducted in cultured AML12 cells, a line of differentiated murine hepatocytes. As is the case for hepatocytes in vivo, AML12 cells were not sensitive to cell death by TNF alone, but died by apoptosis when exposed to TNF and a small dose of actinomycin D (Act D). Morphological signs of apoptosis were not detected until 6 hours after the treatment and by 18 hours approximately 50% of the cells had died. Exposure of the cells to TNF+Act D did not block NFkappaB nuclear translocation, DNA binding, or its overall transactivation capacity. Induction of apoptosis was characterized by oxidative stress indicated by the loss of NAD(P)H and glutathione followed by mitochondrial damage that included loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, inner membrane structural damage, and mitochondrial condensation. These changes coincided with cytochrome C release and the activation of caspases-8, -9, and -3. TNF-induced apoptosis was dependent on glutathione levels. In cells with decreased levels of glutathione, TNF by itself in the absence of transcriptional blocking acted as an apoptotic agent. Conversely, the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid, that protected against the loss of glutathione in cells exposed to TNF+Act D completely prevented mitochondrial damage, caspase activation, cytochrome C release, and apoptosis. The results demonstrate that apoptosis induced by TNF+Act D in AML12 cells involves oxidative injury and mitochondrial damage. As injury was regulated to a larger extent by the glutathione content of the cells, we suggest that the combination of TNF+Act D causes apoptosis because Act D blocks the transcription of genes required for antioxidant defenses.

Cloning and characterization of the proximal promoter region of the mouse glutamate-L-cysteine ligase regulatory subunit gene.

We describe upregulation of the mRNA for the mouse glutamate-cysteine ligase regulatory subunit gene (Glcl-r) in Hepa-1 cells treated with beta-napthoflavone (BNF) and tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ). A 2-kb fragment of the proximal promoter region of the gene was cloned and sequenced, and sequence analysis reveals a high degree of homology when compared to the human glutamate-cysteine ligase regulatory subunit gene promoter. Primer extension analysis indicates a major transcription start site 218 bp upstream of the translation start codon in a CpG-rich region, suggesting that transcription is Sp1 mediated. Reporter constructs containing nested deletion fragments of the Glcl-r promoter demonstrate that regulatory elements sufficient for basal and tBHQ-inducible expression lie between -273 and -787 bp relative to the translation start codon and that the distal promoter may contain negative regulatory elements.

Analysis of integrin (CD11b/CD18) movement during neutrophil adhesion and migration on endothelial cells.

Little is known of the distribution of cell surface molecules during the adhesion and migration of leucocytes on endothelial cells. We have used confocal microscopy and a Fab fragment of a non-inhibitory monoclonal antibody recognizing the integrin CD11b/CD18 (Mac-1) to study the movement of this adhesion molecule over time. We found that during the initial stage of neutrophil contact with TNF-alpha activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), there is a rapid accumulation of Mac-1 at the contact area between the two cell types. As the neutrophil spreads, Mac-1 redistributes away from this initial contact area. During neutrophil migration on HUVEC, Mac-1 was redistributed to the leading edge of the migrating cell, suggesting that the existing cell surface pool of adhesion molecules is dynamic and can be recruited to the leading front as the cell changes direction. As neutrophils migrate on HUVEC, Mac-1-dense macroaggregates are rapidly formed and broken down at the contact plane between the two cells. The confocal microscope, coupled with the use of non-inhibitory antibodies labelled with photostable fluorophores, is a useful tool for the study of the movement of cell surface molecules over time.

The role of intracellular glutathione in methylmercury-induced toxicity in embryonic neuronal cells.

Previous studies indicate that the ability of cells to up-regulate levels of intracellular glutathione (GSH) synthesis may determine their sensitivity to MeHg exposure. The purpose of the current study is two-fold. First, we determined whether the vulnerability of the developing central nervous system (CNS) to MeHg lies in its intracellular GSH content. The intracellular GSH content and the activity of gamma-glutamyl cysteine synthetase (GCS) were determined with and without MeHg exposure in primary cultures of rat embryonic CNS cells. In addition, the effect of GSH modulation on MeHg-induced cytotoxicity was determined. Second, we characterized the mechanism of GCS regulation, initially by studying the GCS heavy chain subunit (GCS-HC). Primary embryonic limb bud cells were used as a reference cell type for comparing the response of CNS cells. The results indicate that constitutive intracellular GSH content, GCS activity, and GCS-HC mRNA and protein levels of CNS cells were approximately ten-, two-, five-, and ten-fold higher, respectively, than those in limb bud cells. A dose-dependent increase in GSH levels and GCS activity was observed in CNS and limb bud cells following 1 and 2 microM MeHg exposure for 20 hr. Further characterization of GCS up-regulation in CNS cells showed that the increase in GCS activity following MeHg exposure, unlike limb bud cells, was not accompanied by an elevation of GCS-HC mRNA and protein levels. Pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine led to a significant increase in intracellular GSH, while L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO) resulted in decreased GSH levels, however neither pretreatment had a significant impact on MeHg-induced cytotoxicity in either cell type. Our results suggest that although oxidative stress may mediate aspects of MeHg toxicity, disruption of GSH homeostasis alone is not responsible for the sensitivity of embryonic CNS cells to MeHg.