Antitumor activity of the protein kinase inhibitor 1-(ß-D-2'-deoxyribofuranosyl)-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo- 1H-benzimidazole in breast cancer cell lines.

BACKGROUND: The protein kinases CK2 and PIM-1 are involved in cell proliferation and survival, the cell cycle, and drug resistance, and they are found overexpressed in virtually all types of human cancer, including breast cancer. In this study, we investigated the antitumor activity of a deoxynucleoside derivative, the protein kinase inhibitor compound 1-(ß-D-2'-deoxyribofuranosyl)-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (K164, also termed TDB), inter alia CK2 and PIM-1, on breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, and SK-BR-3). METHODS: An evaluation of the cytotoxic and proapoptotic effects, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and cell cycle progression was performed using an MTT assay, flow cytometry, and microscopic analysis. The Western blotting method was used to analyze the level of proteins important for the survival of breast cancer cells and proteins phosphorylated by the CK2 and PIM-1 kinases. RESULTS: The examined compound demonstrated the inhibition of cell viability in all the tested cell lines and apoptotic activity, especially in the MCF-7 and SK-BR-3 cells. Changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), cell cycle progression, and the level of the proteins studied were also observed. CONCLUSIONS: The investigated CK2 and PIM-1 kinase inhibitor K164 is a promising compound that can be considered a potential agent in targeted therapy in selected types of breast cancer; therefore, further research is necessary.

IGF1R and MAPK15 Emerge as Potential Targets of Pentabromobenzylisothioureas in Lung Neuroendocrine Neoplasms.

Pentabromobenzylisothioureas are antitumor agents with diverse properties, including the inhibition of MAPK15, IGF1R and PKD1 kinases. Their dysregulation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several cancers, including bronchopulmonary neuroendocrine neoplasms (BP-NEN). The present study assesses the antitumor potential of ZKKs, a series of pentabromobenzylisothioureas, on the growth of the lung carcinoid H727 cell line. It also evaluates the expression of MAPK15, IGF1R and PKD1 kinases in different BP-NENs. The viability of the H727 cell line was assessed by colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide) and its proliferation by BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) assay. Tissue kinase expression was measured using TaqMan-based RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. ZKKs (10-4 to 10-5 M) strongly inhibited H727 cell viability and proliferation and their antineoplastic effects correlated with their concentrations (p < 0.001). IGF1R and MAPK15 were expressed at high levels in all subtypes of BP-NENs. In addition, the SCLC (small cell lung carcinoma) patients demonstrated higher mRNA levels of IGF1R (p = 0.010) and MAPK15 (p = 0.040) than the other BP-NEN groups. BP-NENs were characterized by low PKD1 expression, and lung neuroendocrine cancers demonstrated lower PKD1 mRNA levels than carcinoids (p = 0.003). ZKKs may suppress BP-NEN growth by inhibiting protein kinase activity. Our results suggest also a possible link between high IGF1R and MAPK15 expression and the aggressive phenotype of BP-NEN tumors.

Potent Antitumour Effects of Novel Pentabromobenzylisothioureas Studied on Human Glial-derived Tumour Cell Lines.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Tumours of astroglial origin are the most common primary brain malignancy characterized by infiltrative growth and resistance to standard antitumour therapy. Glioma progression is thought to be related to various intracellular signal transduction pathways that involve the activation of protein kinases. Protein kinases play important roles in cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival. Recently, novel, specific inhibitors of constitutively active serine/threonine kinases and structurally similar isothiourea derivatives were suggested to induce apoptosis and inhibit proliferation in several types of human cancer cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, we examined the cytotoxic and proapoptotic activities of selected modified pentabromobenzyl isothioureas (ZKKs) in an adult human glioblastoma (T98G) and a subependymal giant cell astrocytoma cell (SEGA) line. We evaluated cell proliferation, viability, and apoptosis. RESULTS: Two pentabromobenzyl isothiourea bromide derivatives, ZKK-13 and N,N,N'-trimethyl-ZKK1 (TRIM), exhibited the most potent cytotoxic and proapoptotic efficacies against human glioma-derived cells, even at a very low concentration (1 µM). ZKK-13 (25-50 µM) inhibited cell growth by approximately 80-90% in 24 and 48 h of treatment. We showed that selected ZKKs exerted antiproliferative activity against astroglial neoplastic cells of both low- and high-grade tumour malignancy classes. No synergistic effects were detected when ZKKs were combined with serine/threonine kinase inhibitors. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicated that modified ZKKs show promise for the treatment of glioma-derived brain tumours.

In Search of the Antimicrobial Potential of Benzimidazole Derivatives.

A broad series of 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogenated benzimidazoles and 4-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)-benzene-1,3-diol derivatives was tested against selected bacteria and fungi. For this study three plant pathogens Colletotrichum sp., Fusarium sp., and Sclerotinia sp., as well as Staphylococcus sp., Enterococcus sp., Escherichia sp., Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella spp. , and Candida spp. as human pathogens were used. MIC values and/or area of growth reduction method were applied in order to compare the activity of the synthesized compounds. From the presented set of 22 compounds, only 8, 16, 18 and 19 showed moderate to good inhibition against bacterial strains. Against Candida strains only compound 19 with three hydroxyl substituted benzene moiety presented high inhibition at nystatin level or lower.

New benzimidazole-derived isothioureas as potential antileukemic agents--studies in vitro.

Isothioureas are a class of amphiphilic compounds carrying a highly basic isothiourea group of pKa ranging between 10 and 11. Hence, they exist in protonated (cation) form at physiological pH, a characteristic is of key importance for their pharmacological activity. Recently, we have found that a number of S-pentabromobenzylisothiourea derivatives show substantial cytotoxicity toward a variety of human glioblastoma, leukemia, and adenocarcinoma cell lines. Whereas there is a growing body of data on aliphatic and alkylaromatic isothioureas, little attention was given to this day to heterocyclic isotiourea derivatives. Here we report on the synthesis and pharmacological in vitro properties of 10 novel S-(benzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)- and S-(5,6-dichlorobenzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)isothiourea derivatives. The compounds were obtained by the condensation of the respective 2-chloromethyl benzimidazoles with various substituted N(N')-thioureas. Besides the essential physicochemical characteristics (H-NMR, UV, elemental analysis) of the new compounds, their log P values, which are of key importance for in vivo drug distribution and interactions, were determined. Pharmacological (anticancer) activity of the compounds was evaluated based on their ability to induce apoptosis in exponentially growing cultures of the human acute myelogenous leukemia cell line KG-1; the apoptosis was assessed with a variety of flow cytometric methods. Of the novel compounds tested, the most potent apoptosis inducer in KG-1 cells was N-methyl-S- (5,6-dichloro-1H-benzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)isothiouronium chloride (ClBMMe).

An insight into prototropism and supramolecular motifs in solid-state structures of allopurinol, hypoxanthine, xanthine, and uric acid. A ¹H-¹4N NQDR spectroscopy, hybrid DFT/QTAIM, and Hirshfeld surface-based study.

Allopurinol (1,5-dihydro-4H-pyrazolo [3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-one), the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) of the drugs applied for the treatment of gout and tumor lysis syndrome, recently discovered to have multifaceted therapeutic potential, and hypoxanthine which is a naturally occurring purine have been studied experimentally in the solid state by (1)H-(14)N NMR-NQR double resonance. Twelve (14)N resonance frequencies have been detected at 295 K and assigned to two pairs of two kinds of nitrogen sites (-N═ and -NH) in each compound. The experimental results are supported by and interpreted with the help of quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM)/density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The factors, such as the substituent effect, in particular the shift of nitrogen from position 7 (as in hypoxanthine) to position 8 (as in allopurinol), hybridization, possible prototropic tautomerism, and the pattern of intermolecular bonding, have been taken into account in (1)H-(14)N NMR-NQR spectra interpretation. This study demonstrates the advantages of combining NQR, DFT/QTAIM, and Hirshfeld surface analysis to extract detailed information on electron density distribution and complex H-bonding networks in crystals of purinic type heterocycles, relevant in pharmacological processes. In the absence of X-ray data for xanthine, the NQR parameters supported by DFT/QTAIM calculations and Hirshfeld surface analysis were proved to be valuable tools for clarifying the details of crystalline packing and predicting an unsolved crystalline structure of xanthine. The influence of a decrease in purine ring conjugation level upon oxidation on the biological activity of allopurinol, a xanthine oxidase (XO) enzyme inhibitor, which blocks the conversion of hypoxanthine to xanthine and subsequently xanthine to uric acid, is also discussed.

Zinc finger oxidation of Fpg/Nei DNA glycosylases by 2-thioxanthine: biochemical and X-ray structural characterization.

DNA glycosylases from the Fpg/Nei structural superfamily are base excision repair enzymes involved in the removal of a wide variety of mutagen and potentially lethal oxidized purines and pyrimidines. Although involved in genome stability, the recent discovery of synthetic lethal relationships between DNA glycosylases and other pathways highlights the potential of DNA glycosylase inhibitors for future medicinal chemistry development in cancer therapy. By combining biochemical and structural approaches, the physical target of 2-thioxanthine (2TX), an uncompetitive inhibitor of Fpg, was identified. 2TX interacts with the zinc finger (ZnF) DNA binding domain of the enzyme. This explains why the zincless hNEIL1 enzyme is resistant to 2TX. Crystal structures of the enzyme bound to DNA in the presence of 2TX demonstrate that the inhibitor chemically reacts with cysteine thiolates of ZnF and induces the loss of zinc. The molecular mechanism by which 2TX inhibits Fpg may be generalized to all prokaryote and eukaryote ZnF-containing Fpg/Nei-DNA glycosylases. Cell experiments show that 2TX can operate in cellulo on the human Fpg/Nei DNA glycosylases. The atomic elucidation of the determinants for the interaction of 2TX to Fpg provides the foundation for the future design and synthesis of new inhibitors with high efficiency and selectivity.

Quantum-chemical insight into structure-reactivity relationship in 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazoles: a combined X-ray, DSC, DFT/QTAIM, Hirshfeld surface-based, and molecular docking approach.

The weak interaction patterns in 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazoles, protein kinase CK2 inhibitors, in solid state are studied by the X-ray method and quantum chemistry calculations. The crystal structures of 4,5,6,7-tetrachloro- and 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole are determined by X-ray diffraction and refined to a final R-factor of 3.07 and 3.03%, respectively, at room temperature. The compound 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole, which crystallizes in the I41/a space group, is found to be isostructural with previously studied 4,5,6,7-tetraiodo-1H-benzimidazole in contrast to 4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-1H-benzimidazole, which crystallizes as triclinic P1̅ with 4 molecules in elementary unit. For 4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-1H-benzimidazole, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed a second order glassy phase transition at Tg = 95°/106° (heating/cooling), an indication of frozen disorder. The lack of 3D isostructurality found in all 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazoles is elucidated on the basis of the intra- and intermolecular interactions (hydrogen bonding, van der Waals contacts, and C-H···π interactions). The topological Bader's Quantum Theory of Atoms in Molecules (QTAIM) and Spackman's Hirshfeld surface-based approaches reveal equilibration of electrostatic matching and dispersion van der Waals interactions between molecules consistent with the crystal site-symmetry. The weakening of van der Waals forces accompanied by increasing strength of the hydrogen bond (N-H···N) result in a decrease in the crystal site-symmetry and a change in molecular packing in the crystalline state. Crystal packing motifs were investigated with the aid of Hirshfeld surface fingerprint plots. The ordering 4,5,6,7-tetraiodo > 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo > 4,5,6,7-tetrachloro > 4,5,6,7-tetrafluoro reflects not only a decrease in crystal symmetry but also increase in chemical reactivity (electronic activation), which could explain some changes in biological activity of compounds from the 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazole series. The ability of formation of a given type of bonds by 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazole molecules is the same in the crystal and in CK2. Analysis of the interactions in the crystal permits drawing conclusions on the character (the way) of connections between a given 4,5,6,7-tetrahalogeno-1H-benzimidazole as a ligand with CK2 protein to make a protein-ligand complex.

Cell-permeable dual inhibitors of protein kinases CK2 and PIM-1: structural features and pharmacological potential.

It has been proposed that dual inhibitors of protein kinases CK2 and PIM-1 are tools particularly valuable to induce apoptosis of cancer cells, a property, however, implying cell permeability, which is lacking in the case of selective CK2/PIM-1 inhibitors developed so far. To fill this gap, we have derivatized the scaffold of the promiscuous CK2 inhibitor TBI with a deoxyribose moiety, generating TDB, a selective, cell-permeable inhibitor of CK2 and PIM-1. Here, we shed light on the structural features underlying the potency and narrow selectivity of TDB by exploiting a number of TDB analogs and by solving the 3D structure of the TDB/CK2 complex at 1.25 Å resolution, one of the highest reported so far for this kinase. We also show that the cytotoxic efficacy of TDB is almost entirely due to apoptosis, is accompanied by parallel inhibition of cellular CK2 and PIM-1, and is superior to both those observed combining individual inhibitors of CK2 and PIM-1 and by treating cells with the CK2 inhibitor CX4945. These data, in conjunction with the observations that cancer cells are more susceptible than non-cancer cells to TDB and that such a sensitivity is maintained in a multi-drug resistance background, highlight the pharmacological potential of this compound.

Synergistic anti-leukemic effects of CK2 inhibitors and pentabromobenzylisothioureas in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Casein kinase-2 (CK2) inhibitors and pentabromobenzylisothioureas are promising anti-leukemic agents for treatment, both alone and in combination. In this study, we examined pro-apoptotic and cytostatic effects of three CK2 inhibitors: one known, 2-dimethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (DMAT) and two new: 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (MPT) and 2-aminoethyleneamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (AEAT), as well as of certain S-2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzylisothiouronium bromides: ZKK-3, ZKK-9, ZKK-13, against the human acute myelogenous leukemia cell line (KG-1). Cells were treated with CK2 inhibitors alone and in combination with the pentabromobenzylisothioureas. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Evaluation of synergistic and pro-apoptotic effects, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) assay, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage assay, and cell-cycle progression of KG-1 cells were carried out using the flow cytometric technique and fluorescent microscopic analysis. Western blots were used for analysis of B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) family proteins in whole-cell extracts. RESULTS: The tested CK2 inhibitors DMAT, MPT, AEAT exhibited synergistic proapoptotic effect in combination with ZKK-3, ZKK-9 and ZKK-13. The agents revealed different pro-apoptotic efficacies against leukemia cell line KG-1. The highest apoptotic activity of the tested compounds was exhibited by AEAT. CONCLUSION: Combination of CK2 inhibitors and pentabromobenzylisothioureas-induced synergistic anti-leukemic effects against KG-1 acute myelogenous leukemia cells in vitro.

Exploiting the repertoire of CK2 inhibitors to target DYRK and PIM kinases.

Advantage has been taken of the relative promiscuity of commonly used inhibitors of protein kinase CK2 to develop compounds that can be exploited for the selective inhibition of druggable kinases other than CK2 itself. Here we summarize data obtained by altering the scaffold of CK2 inhibitors to give rise to novel selective inhibitors of DYRK1A and to a powerful cell permeable dual inhibitor of PIM1 and CK2. In the former case one of the new compounds, C624 (naphto [1,2-b]benzofuran-5,9-diol) displays a potency comparable to that of the first-in-class DYRK1A inhibitor, harmine, lacking however the drawback of drastically inhibiting monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) as harmine does. On the other hand the promiscuous CK2 inhibitor 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (TBI,TBBz) has been derivatized with a sugar moiety to generate a 1-(ß-D-2'-deoxyribofuranosyl)-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (TDB) compound which inhibits PIM1 and CK2 with comparably high efficacy (IC50 values<100nM) and remarkable selectivity. TDB, unlike other dual PIM1/CK2 inhibitors described in the literature is readily cell permeable and displays a cytotoxic effect on cancer cells consistent with concomitant inhibition of both its onco-kinase targets. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases (2012).

Proapoptotic effects of novel pentabromobenzylisothioureas in human leukemia cell lines.

A series of new pentabromobenzylisothioureas [ZKK-1-ZKK-5; (ZKKs)] carrying additional substituents on nitrogen atoms has been synthesized. The ZKKs were found to induce apoptosis in HL-60 (human promyleocytic leukemia) and K-562 (human chronic erythromyeloblastoid leukemia) cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner at low micromolar concentrations. ZKK-3 [(N,N'-dimethyl-S-2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzyl)isothiouronium bromide] showed the highest proapoptotic activity in HL-60 cells, whereas ZKK-2 [N-methyl-S-(2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzyl)isothiouronium bromide] was most effective in this respect in K-562 cells. During the ZKKs-induced apoptosis, an 85 kDa fragment of cleaved PARP (caspase-3 and caspase-7 substrate) was detected in both cell lines tested. The studied compounds also decreased mitochondrial transmembrane potential in both these cell lines and caused the cells to accumulate in G(1) and at the G(1)/S border of the cell cycle in a concentration-dependent manner. These results show promise for their study as new compounds in the treatment of leukemia, after an appropriate preclinical toxicity profile.

Modified tetrahalogenated benzimidazoles with CK2 inhibitory activity are active against human prostate cancer cells LNCaP in vitro.

A series of novel CK2 inhibitors, tetrahalogenated benzimidazoles carrying an aminoalkylamino group at position 2, has been prepared by nucleophilic substitution of the respective 2,4,5,6,7-pentabromobenzimidazoles and 2-bromo-4,5,6,7-tetraiodobenzimidazoles. The new derivatives as well as some previously obtained tetrahalogenobenzimidazoles, including 4,5,6,7-tetrabromobenzimidazole (TBI) and 4,5,6,7-tetraiodobenzimidazole (TIBI), were evaluated for activity against the hormone-sensitive human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. The activity of 2-aminoalkylamino derivatives was notably higher (LD(50) 4.75-9.37 µM) than that of TBI and TIBI (LD(50) ≈ 20 µM). The determination of the LD(50) value identified the 2-aminoethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetraiodobenzimidazole with an additional methyl group at position 1 (6) as the most efficient compound (LD(50): 4.75 ± 1.02 µM). Interestingly, there was no clear correlation between cell viability and apoptosis induction indicating additional cell death mechanisms.

Proapoptotic effects of new pentabromobenzylisothiouronium salts in a human prostate adenocarcinoma cell line.

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in elderly men worldwide and its incidence rate is rising continuously. Agents capable of inducing apoptosis in prostate cancer cells seem a promising approach to treat this malignancy. In this study we describe the synthesis of a number of novel N- and N,N'-substituted S-2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzylisothiouronium bromides and their activity against the human prostate adenocarcinoma PC3 cell line. All the compounds produced changes in mitochondrial transmembrane potential and cell cycle progression, showed a cytostatic effect and induced apoptosis in the tested cancer line in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The most effective compounds ZKK-3, ZKK-9 and ZKK-13 produced, at 20 microM concentration, apoptosis in 42, 46, and 66% of the cells, respectively, after 48 h incubation. Two selected S-2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzylisothiouronium bromides (ZKK-3, ZKK-9) showed also a synergic proapoptotic effect with the new casein kinase II inhibitor 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (TBIPIP) in the PC3 cell line.

Nanoencapsulated anti-CK2 small molecule drug or siRNA specifically targets malignant cancer but not benign cells.

CK2, a pleiotropic Ser/Thr kinase, is an important target for cancer therapy. We tested our novel tenfibgen-based nanocapsule for delivery of the inhibitor 2-dimethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole (DMAT) and an siRNA directed against both CK2α and α' catalytic subunits to prostate cancer cells. We present data on the TBG nanocapsule itself and on CK2 inhibition or downregulation in treated cells, including effects on Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65. By direct comparison of two CK2-directed cargos, our data provide proof that the TBG encapsulation design for delivery of drugs specifically to cancer cells has strong potential for small molecule- and nucleic acid-based cancer therapy.

CK2α and CK2α' subunits differ in their sensitivity to 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo- and 4,5,6,7-tetraiodo-1H-benzimidazole derivatives.

The goal of this study was to test the inhibitory activity of a series of tetrahalogenobenzimidazoles, including a number of novel derivatives, on individual catalytic subunits of human CK2. 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo- and 4,5,6,7-tetraiodo-1H-benzimidazoles and their newly obtained N(1)- and 2-S-carboxyalkyl derivatives showed potent inhibitory activity against both these subunits. CK2α' was up to 6 times more sensitive to the studied compounds than CK2α. The investigated iododerivatives showed, in most cases, stronger inhibitory properties than the respective brominated congeners, but the differences showed considerable dependence on the protein substrate used.

Novel and promising compounds to treat Cryptosporidium parvum infections.

No fully effective approved drug therapy exists for Cryptosporidium infections of immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. Here, we investigated 11 benzimidazole derivatives carrying substituted thioalkyl and thiobenzyl groups at position 2 of benzimidazole nucleus and additional substituents at the benzene part of benzimidazole for inhibition of the in vitro growth of the intestinal protozoan parasite, Cryptosporidium parvum. Three of them, i.e., 5-carboxy-2-(4-nitrobenzylthio)-1H-benzimidazole, 5,6-dichloro-2-(4-nitrobenzylthio)-1H-benzimidazole, and 4,6-dichloro-2-(4-nitrobenzylthio)-1H-benzimidazole, (compounds 5, 7, and 8) were the most active (IC(50) 28-31 µM). The concentration of compounds 5, 7, and 8 that caused 50% growth inhibition in human enterocytic HCT-8 cells by a quantitative alkaline phosphatase immunoassay was comparable with those obtained for paromomycin.

7-Amino-1-(2-deoxy-ß-erythro-pentofuranosyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine: an 8-azaadenine nucleoside with the nucleobase in a syn conformation.

The title compound, C(9)H(12)N(6)O(3), shows a syn-glycosylic bond orientation [χ = 64.17 (16)°]. The 2'-deoxyfuranosyl moiety exhibits an unusual C1'-exo-O4'-endo ((1)T(0); S-type) sugar pucker, with P = 111.5 (1)° and τ(m) = 40.3 (1)°. The conformation at the exocyclic C4'-C5' bond is +sc (gauche), with γ = 64.4 (1)°. The two-dimensional hydrogen-bonded network is built from intermolecular N-H...O and O-H...N hydrogen bonds. An intramolecular bifurcated hydrogen bond, with an amino N-H group as hydrogen-bond donor and the ring and hydroxymethyl O atoms of the sugar moiety as acceptors, constrains the overall conformation of the nucleoside.

Synthesis and antimicrobial and nitric oxide synthase inhibitory activities of novel isothiourea derivatives.

The reaction of substituted benzylhalides, or of halomethyl derivatives of thiophene or furane, with thiourea or its derivatives yielded the respective isothioureas as hydrohalide salts. The products (a total of 17, including 16 novel compounds) were tested for activity against five Gram-positive and nine Gram-negative bacterial strains, six yeast species and two protozoan species. The most active against Gram-positive bacteria were S-(2,4-dinitrobenzyl)isothiourea hydrochloride (MIC range for four out of five strains tested: 12.5-25 microg/mL) and S-(2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzyl)isothiourea hydrobromide (MIC range: 12.5-50 microg/mL). The lowest MICs of novel isothioureas for yeast and Gram-negative bacteria ranged between 50 and 100 microg/mL. Nine novel isothioureas showed appreciable genotoxicity in the Bacillus subtilis 'rec-assay' test, the most potent being S-2-(5-nitrofuran-2-ylmethyl)isothiourea and S-(2-nitrobenzyl) isothiourea. At 10 muM concentration, S-(3,4-dichlorobenzyl)isothiourea hydrochloride and S-(2,3,4,5,6-pentabromobenzyl)isothiourea hydrobromide inhibited Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent (non-inducible) nitric oxide synthase activity in normal rat brain homogenates stronger (p < 0.05) than the reference drug 7-nitroindazole (by 78, 76 and 60%, respectively); ten other new isothiourea derivatives significantly inhibited the activity to a lower extent (by 28-60%). These results extend the list of promising isothioureas with substantial activity in vitro and suggest that an in-depth study of toxicity, antimicrobial properties in vivo and nitric oxide synthase isoform selectivity of selected novel compounds is warranted.

Susceptibility in vitro of clinically metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis to nitazoxanide, toyocamycin, and 2-fluoro-2'-deoxyadenosine.

This study investigates the susceptibility of a clinically metronidazole (Mz)-resistant isolate of Trichomonas vaginalis to alternative anti-trichomonal compounds. The microaerobic minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the 5-nitroimidazole (NI) drug, Mz, against a typical Mz-susceptible isolate of T. vaginalis is around 3.2 microM Mz while the clinically, highly Mz-resistant isolate has an MIC of 50-100 microM. This isolate was cross-resistant to other members of the 5-NI family of compounds including tinidazole and other experimental compounds and maintained resistance under anaerobic conditions. In addition, this isolate was cross-resistant to the 5-nitrothiazole compound nitazoxanide and the 5-nitrofuran derivative, furazolidone. Adenosine analogues toyocamycin and 2-fluoro-2'-deoxyadenosine with no nitro group were also less effective against the clinically Mz-resistant isolate than a Mz-susceptible one. Three other isolates which were determined to be Mz-resistant soon after isolation lost resistance in the long term. One other isolate has maintained some level of permanent Mz resistance (MIC of 25 microM). A multi-drug resistance mechanism may be involved in these clinically Mz-resistant isolates.