Convergent evolution of parrot plumage coloration.

Parrots have remarkable plumage coloration that result in part from a unique ability to produce pigments called psittacofulvins that yield yellow to red feather colors. Little is known about the evolution of psittacofulvin-based pigmentation. Widespread color mutations of captive-bred parrots provide perfect opportunities to study the genetic basis of this trait. An earlier study on blue budgerigars, which do not possess psittacofulvins, reveals the involvement of an uncharacterized polyketide synthase (MuPKS) in yellow psittacofulvin synthesis. The blue phenotype had repeatedly appeared in different parrot species, similar to independent experimental replications allowing the study of convergent evolution and molecular mechanism of psittacofulvin-based pigmentation. Here, we investigated the genetic basis of the blue phenotypes in two species of Agapornis parrots, Fischer's lovebird (A. fischeri) and Yellow-collared lovebird (A. personatus). Using whole-genome data, we identified a single genomic region with size <2 Mb to be strongly associated with the color difference between blue and wild-type (WT) birds in both species. Surprisingly, we discovered that the mutation associated with the blue Agapornis phenotype was identical to the previously described substitution causing the functional change of MuPKS in budgerigars. Together with the evidence of shared blue-associated haplotypes and signatures of a selective sweep in this genomic region in both species, we demonstrated both de novo mutation and interspecific introgression play a role in the evolution of this trait in different Agapornis species. The convergent substitution in the same gene in both lovebirds and budgerigars also indicates a strong evolutionary constraint on psittacofulvin-based coloration.

Genetic Basis and Evolution of Structural Color Polymorphism in an Australian Songbird.

Island organisms often evolve phenotypes divergent from their mainland counterparts, providing a useful system for studying adaptation under differential selection. In the white-winged fairywren (Malurus leucopterus), subspecies on two islands have a black nuptial plumage whereas the subspecies on the Australian mainland has a blue nuptial plumage. The black subspecies have a feather nanostructure that could in principle produce a blue structural color, suggesting a blue ancestor. An earlier study proposed independent evolution of melanism on the islands based on the history of subspecies divergence. However, the genetic basis of melanism and the origin of color differentiation in this group are still unknown. Here, we used whole-genome resequencing to investigate the genetic basis of melanism by comparing the blue and black M. leucopterus subspecies to identify highly divergent genomic regions. We identified a well-known pigmentation gene ASIP and four candidate genes that may contribute to feather nanostructure development. Contrary to the prediction of convergent evolution of island melanism, we detected signatures of a selective sweep in genomic regions containing ASIP and SCUBE2 not in the black subspecies but in the blue subspecies, which possesses many derived SNPs in these regions, suggesting that the mainland subspecies has re-evolved a blue plumage from a black ancestor. This proposed re-evolution was likely driven by a preexisting female preference. Our findings provide new insight into the evolution of plumage coloration in island versus continental populations, and, importantly, we identify candidate genes that likely play roles in the development and evolution of feather structural coloration.

Temporal sampling and network analysis reveal rapid population turnover and dynamic migration pattern in overwintering regions of a cosmopolitan pest.

Genetic makeup of insect pest is informative for source-sink dynamics, spreading of insecticide resistant genes, and effective management. However, collecting samples from field populations without considering temporal resolution and calculating parameters related to historical gene flow may not capture contemporary genetic pattern and metapopulation dynamics of highly dispersive pests. Plutella xylostella (L.), the most widely distributed Lepidopteran pest that developed resistance to almost all current insecticides, migrates heterogeneously across space and time. To investigate its real-time genetic pattern and dynamics, we executed four samplings over two consecutive years across Southern China and Southeast Asia, and constructed population network based on contemporary gene flow. Across 48 populations, genetic structure analysis identified two differentiated insect swarms, of which the one with higher genetic variation was replaced by the other over time. We further inferred gene flow by estimation of kinship relationship and constructed migration network in each sampling time. Interestingly, we found mean migration distance at around 1,000 km. Such distance might have contributed to the formation of step-stone migration and migration circuit over large geographical scale. Probing network clustering across sampling times, we found a dynamic P. xylostella metapopulation with more active migration in spring than in winter, and identified a consistent pattern that some regions are sources (e.g., Yunnan in China, Myanmar and Vietnam) while several others are sinks (e.g., Guangdong and Fujian in China) over 2 years. Rapid turnover of insect swarms and highly dynamic metapopulation highlight the importance of temporal sampling and network analysis in investigation of source-sink relationships and thus effective pest management of P. xylostella, and other highly dispersive insect pests.

Gene flow, linked selection, and divergent sorting of ancient polymorphism shape genomic divergence landscape in a group of edaphic specialists.

Interpreting the formation of genomic variation landscape, especially genomic regions with elevated differentiation (i.e. islands), is fundamental to a better understanding of the genomic consequences of adaptation and speciation. Edaphic islands provide excellent systems for understanding the interplay of gene flow and selection in driving population divergence and speciation. However, discerning the relative contribution of these factors that modify patterns of genomic variation remains difficult. We analysed 132 genomes from five recently divergent species in Primulina genus, with four species distributed in Karst limestone habitats and the fifth one growing in Danxia habitats. We demonstrated that both gene flow and linked selection have contributed to genome-wide variation landscape, where genomic regions with elevated differentiation (i.e., islands) were largely derived by divergent sorting of ancient polymorphism. Specifically, we identified several lineage-specific genomic islands that might have facilitated adaptation of P. suichuanensis to Danxia habitats. Our study is amongst the first cases disentangling evolutionary processes that shape genomic variation of plant specialists, and demonstrates the important role of ancient polymorphism in the formation of genomic islands that potentially mediate adaptation and speciation of endemic plants in special soil habitats.

Large-scale genome-wide study reveals climate adaptive variability in a cosmopolitan pest.

Understanding the genetic basis of climatic adaptation is essential for predicting species' responses to climate change. However, intraspecific variation of these responses arising from local adaptation remains ambiguous for most species. Here, we analyze genomic data from diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) collected from 75 sites spanning six continents to reveal that climate-associated adaptive variation exhibits a roughly latitudinal pattern. By developing an eco-genetic index that combines genetic variation and physiological responses, we predict that most P. xylostella populations have high tolerance to projected future climates. Using genome editing, a key gene, PxCad, emerged from our analysis as functionally temperature responsive. Our results demonstrate that P. xylostella is largely capable of tolerating future climates in most of the world and will remain a global pest beyond 2050. This work improves our understanding of adaptive variation along environmental gradients, and advances pest forecasting by highlighting the genetic basis for local climate adaptation.

Variation among 532 genomes unveils the origin and evolutionary history of a global insect herbivore.

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella is a cosmopolitan pest that has evolved resistance to all classes of insecticide, and costs the world economy an estimated US $4-5 billion annually. We analyse patterns of variation among 532 P. xylostella genomes, representing a worldwide sample of 114 populations. We find evidence that suggests South America is the geographical area of origin of this species, challenging earlier hypotheses of an Old-World origin. Our analysis indicates that Plutella xylostella has experienced three major expansions across the world, mainly facilitated by European colonization and global trade. We identify genomic signatures of selection in genes related to metabolic and signaling pathways that could be evidence of environmental adaptation. This evolutionary history of P. xylostella provides insights into transoceanic movements that have enabled it to become a worldwide pest.

Herbivore range expansion triggers adaptation in a subsequently-associated third trophic level species and shared microbial symbionts.

Invasive species may change the life history strategies, distribution, genetic configuration and trophic interactions of native species. The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L., is an invasive herbivore attacking cultivated and wild brassica plants worldwide. Here we present phylogeographic analyses of P. xylostella and one of its major parasitoids, Cotesia vestalis, using mitochondrial markers, revealing the genetic diversity and evolutionary history of these two species. We find evidence that C. vestalis originated in Southwest China, then adapted to P. xylostella as a new host by ecological sorting as P. xylostella expanded its geographic range into this region. Associated with the expansion of P. xylostella, Wolbachia symbionts were introduced into local populations of the parasitoid through horizontal transfer from its newly associated host. Insights into the evolutionary history and phylogeographic system of the herbivore and its parasitoid provide an important basis for better understanding the impacts of biological invasion on genetic configuration of local species.

Isolation and Characterization of Microsatellite Loci for Cotesia plutellae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).

Fourteen polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated in this transcriptome-based data analysis for Cotesia plutellae, which is an important larval parasitoid of the worldwide pest Plutella xylostella. A subsequent test was performed for a wild C. plutellae population (N = 32) from Fuzhou, Fujian, southeastern China, to verify the effectiveness of the 14 microsatellite loci in future studies on C. plutellae genetic diversity. The observed number of alleles ranged from two to six. The expected and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.123 to 0.316 and from 0.141 to 0.281, respectively. The polymorphism information content (PIC) value ranged from 0.272 to 0.622. Potentially due to the substructure of the sampled population, three of the 14 microsatellite loci deviated from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). Further, loci C6, C22, and C31 could be amplified in Cocobius fulvus and Encarsia japonica, suggesting the transferability of these three polymorphic loci to other species of Hymenoptera.

Genetic differentiation of the regional Plutella xylostella populations across the Taiwan Strait based on identification of microsatellite markers.

Movement of individuals through events, such as storms or crop transportation, may affect survival and distribution of insect pests, as well as population genetic structure at a regional scale. Understanding what factors contribute to gene flow in pest populations remains very important for sustainable pest management. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is an insect pest well known for its capacity of moving over short to long distances. Here, we used newly isolated microsatellite markers to analyze the genetic structure of nine populations across the Taiwan Strait of China (Taiwan and Fujian). A total of 12,152 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were initially identified from the P. xylostella transcriptome (~94 Mb), with an average of 129 SSRs per Mb. Nine SSRs were validated to be polymorphic markers, and eight were used for this population genetic study. Our results showed that the P. xylostella populations could be divided into distinct two clusters, which is likely due to the year-round airflows in this region. A pattern of isolation by distance among the local populations within Fujian was found, and may be related to vegetable transportation. Considering the complexity of the P. xylostella population genetic structure from local and regional to global levels, we propose that developing ecologically sound strategies for managing this pest will require knowledge of the link between behavioral and population ecology and its genetic structure.

DBM-DB: the diamondback moth genome database.

The diamondback moth Genome Database (DBM-DB) is a central online repository for storing and integrating genomic data of diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.). It provides comprehensive search tools and downloadable datasets for scientists to study comparative genomics, biological interpretation and gene annotation of this insect pest. DBM-DB contains assembled transcriptome datasets from multiple DBM strains and developmental stages, and the annotated genome of P. xylostella (version 2). We have also integrated publically available ESTs from NCBI and a putative gene set from a second DBM genome (KONAGbase) to enable users to compare different gene models. DBM-DB was developed with the capacity to incorporate future data resources, and will serve as a long-term and open-access database that can be conveniently used for research on the biology, distribution and evolution of DBM. This resource aims to help reduce the impact DBM has on agriculture using genomic and molecular tools. Database URL: http://iae.fafu.edu.cn/DBM/

A heterozygous moth genome provides insights into herbivory and detoxification.

How an insect evolves to become a successful herbivore is of profound biological and practical importance. Herbivores are often adapted to feed on a specific group of evolutionarily and biochemically related host plants, but the genetic and molecular bases for adaptation to plant defense compounds remain poorly understood. We report the first whole-genome sequence of a basal lepidopteran species, Plutella xylostella, which contains 18,071 protein-coding and 1,412 unique genes with an expansion of gene families associated with perception and the detoxification of plant defense compounds. A recent expansion of retrotransposons near detoxification-related genes and a wider system used in the metabolism of plant defense compounds are shown to also be involved in the development of insecticide resistance. This work shows the genetic and molecular bases for the evolutionary success of this worldwide herbivore and offers wider insights into insect adaptation to plant feeding, as well as opening avenues for more sustainable pest management.