Effectiveness of audit and feedback in addressing over prescribing of antibiotics and injectable medicines in a middle-income country: an RCT.

Overprescribing of antibiotics and injectable medicines is common in ambulatory care in many low- and middleincome countries. We evaluated the effects of three different interventions in improving physician prescribing. We conducted a four-armed randomized controlled trial with one-month and three- months follow-up. General physicians, pediatricians, and infectious disease specialists were included in this study if they had an outpatient office in Tehran, Iran. The study involved two behaviorally guided interventions: "new-design audit and feedback (NA&F)"; "printed educational material (PEM)" and an existing intervention of "routinely conducted audit and feedback (RA&F)". The theoretical framework underpinning the intervention was the theory of planned behavior. Main outcome measures were the percentage change in the proportion of prescriptions containing injectable dexamethasone; oral amoxicillin and cefixime. NA&F reduced the proportion of prescriptions particularly those containing dexamethasone injectable and cefixime (1.64, 0.99 absolute percentage change, p = 0.006, p = 0.01 respectively). PEM reduced the proportion of prescriptions containing cefixime (0.93 absolute percentage change p = 0.04). Other primary outcomes had no significant differences. A secondary outcome measure showed overall prescribing of injectables also reduced (absolute risk reduction: 3%). Overally, the study provides strong evidence that using theoretical insights in the development of the intervention improved prescribing behavior that lasted at least three months after the intervention. The design, format, and presentation of messages in feedback forms significantly influence the impact of audit and feedback on physician prescribing. While the interventions were effective, the impacts on inappropriate prescribing were modest and limited. In settings with rampant problems of overprescribing, intensive interventions are required to substantially improve prescribing patterns. Graphical abstract Graphical abstract.

Impact of economic sanctions on access to noncommunicable diseases medicines in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

BACKGROUND: It has been argued that economic sanctions and the economic crisis have adversely affected access to drugs. AIM: To assess the impact of economic sanctions on the Iranian banking system in 2011 and Central Bank in 2012 on access to and use of drugs for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). METHODS: An interrupted time series study assessed the effects of sanctions on drugs for diabetes (5 drug groups), asthma (5 drug groups), cancer (14 drugs) and multiple sclerosis (2 drugs). We extracted data from national reference databases on the list of drugs on the Iranian pharmaceutical market before 2011 for each selected NCD and their monthly sales. For cancer drugs, we used stratified random sampling by volume and value of sales, and source of supply (domestic or imported). Data were analysed monthly from 2008 to 2013. RESULTS: Market availability of 13 of 26 drugs was significantly reduced. Ten other drugs showed nonsignificant reductions in their market availability. Interferon α2b usage reduced from 0.014 defined daily doses per 1000 inhabitants per day (DID) in 2010 to 0.008 in 2013; and cytarabine from 1.40 mg per 1000 population per day in 2010 to 0.96 in 2013. Selective ß2-adrenoreceptor agonists usage reduced from 8.4 to 6.8 DID in the same time period. CONCLUSION: There is strong evidence that sanctions have had a negative effect on access to drugs, particularly those that depended on the import of their raw material or finished products.

Relationship Between the Provision of Injection Services in Ambulatory Physician Offices and Prescribing Injectable Medicines.

Overuse of injections is a common problem in many low-income and middle income countries. While cultural factors and attitudes of both physicians and patients are important factors, physicians> financial intensives may play an important role in overprescribing of injections. This study was designed to assess the effects of providing injection- services in physicians> ambulatory offices on prescribing injectable medicines. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Tehran in 2012 -2013and included a random sample of general physicians, pediatricians and infectious disease specialists. We collected data on the provision of injection services in or in proximity of physician offices, and obtained data from physicians> prescriptions in the previous three-month period. We analyzed the data using ANOVA, Student>s t-test and linear regression methods. We obtained complete data from 465 of 600 sampled physicians. Overall 41.9% of prescriptions contained injectable medicines. 75% of physicians offered injection services in their offices. Male physicians and general physicians were more likely to offer the services, and more likely to prescribe injectables. We observed a clear linear relationship between the injection service working hours and the proportion of prescriptions containing injectables (p-value<0.001). Providing injection service in the office was directly linked with the proportion of prescriptions containing injectables. While provision of injection services may provide a direct financial benefit to physicians, it is unlikely to be able to substantially reduce injectable medicines> prescription without addressing the issue.

A review of pharmaceutical policies in response to economic crises and sanctions.

An economic crisis has been defined as a situation in which the scale of a country's economy becomes smaller in a period of time. Economic crises happen for various reasons, including economic sanctions. Economic crises in a country may affect national priorities for investment and expenditure and reduce available resources, and hence may affect the health care sector including access to medicines. We reviewed the pharmaceutical policies that the countries adopted in order to mitigate the potential negative effects on access to medicines. We reviewed published reports and articles after conducting a comprehensive search of the PubMed and the Google Scholar. After extracting relevant data from the identified articles, we used the World Health Organization (WHO) access to medicines framework as a guide for the categorization of the policies. We identified a total of 40 studies, of which 10 reported the national pharmaceutical policies adopted to reduce the negative impacts of economic crises on access to medicines in high-income and middle-income countries. We identified 89 policies adopted in the 11 countries and categorized them into 12 distinct policy directions. Most of the policies focused on financial aspects of the pharmaceutical sector. In some cases, countries adopted policies that potentially had negative effects on access to medicines. Only Italy had adopted policies encompassing all four accesses to medicine factors recommended by the WHO. While the countries have adopted many seemingly effective policies, little evidence exists on the effectiveness of these policies to improve access to medicines at a time of an economic crisis.

Assessing the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of audit and feedback on physician's prescribing indicators: study protocol of a randomized controlled trial with economic evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Physician prescribing is the most frequent medical intervention with a highest impact on healthcare costs and outcomes. Therefore improving and promoting rational drug use is a great interest. We aimed to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of two forms of conducting prescribing audit and feedback interventions and a printed educational material intervention in improving physician prescribing. METHOD/DESIGN: A four-arm randomized trial with economic evaluation will be conducted in Tehran. Three interventions (routine feedback, revised feedback, and printed educational material) and a no intervention control arm will be compared. Physicians working in outpatient practices are randomly allocated to one of the four arms using stratified randomized sampling. The interventions are developed based on a review of literature, physician interviews, current experiences in Iran and with theoretical insights from the Theory of Planned Behavior. Effects of the interventions on improving antibiotics and corticosteroids prescribing will be assessed in regression analyses. Cost data will be assessed from a health care provider's perspective and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios will be calculated. DISCUSSION: This study will determine the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of three interventions and allow us to determine the most effective interventions in improving prescribing pattern. If the interventions are cost-effective, they will likely be applied nationwide. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials Registration Number: IRCT201106086740N1Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center of TUMS Ethics Committee Registration Number: 90-02-27-07.