Disruption of Transplant Tolerance by an "Incognito" Form of CD8 T Cell-Dependent Memory.

Several approaches successfully achieve allograft tolerance in preclinical models but are challenging to translate into clinical practice. Many clinically relevant factors can attenuate allograft tolerance induction, including intrinsic genetic resistance, peritransplant infection, inflammation, and preexisting antidonor immunity. The prevailing view for immune memory as a tolerance barrier is that the host harbors memory cells that spontaneously cross-react to donor MHC antigens. Such preexisting "heterologous" memory cells have direct reactivity to donor cells and resist most tolerance regimens. In this study, we developed a model system to determine if an alternative form of immune memory could also block tolerance. We posited that host memory T cells could potentially respond to donor-derived non-MHC antigens, such as latent viral antigens or autoantigens, to which the host is immune. Results show that immunity to a model nonself antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), can dramatically disrupt tolerance despite undetectable initial reactivity to donor MHC antigens. Importantly, this blockade of tolerance was CD8+ T cell-dependent and required linked antigen presentation of alloantigens with the test OVA antigen. As such, this pathway represents an unapparent, or "incognito," form of immunity that is sufficient to prevent tolerance and that can be an unforeseen additional immune barrier to clinical transplant tolerance.

Vaccination with liposome--DNA complexes elicits enhanced antitumor immunity.

Cationic liposomes have been shown to potentiate markedly the ability of plasmid DNA to activate innate immune responses. We reasoned therefore that liposome-DNA complexes (LDC) could be used to produce more effective plasmid DNA vaccines for cancer. To test this hypothesis, tumor-bearing mice were vaccinated with conventional plasmid DNA vaccines or with LDC vaccines encoding model tumor antigens and CD8(+) T-cell responses and antitumor activity were assessed. We found that although plasmid DNA vaccines generated large increases in antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells, they failed to elicit significant antitumor immunity. In contrast, LDC vaccines elicited large numbers of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells and also generated significant antitumor activity against established tumors. The antitumor activity elicited by immunization with LDC vaccines was mediated primarily by CD8(+) T cells. Studies of the interaction of LDC with antigen-presenting cells found that LDC triggered dendritic cell production of interleukin-12 and interferon (IFN)-gamma production by natural killer cells in vivo. Activation by LDC was also accompanied by upregulation of costimulatory molecule expression. These findings suggest that by concurrently activating strong systemic innate immune responses and generating cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses, LDC may be used to increase the effectiveness of therapeutic plasmid DNA vaccination for cancer.

CD40 stimulation accelerates deletion of tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells in the absence of tumor-antigen vaccination.

Previous work has established a role for CD40-mediated signals in eliciting helper-dependent CD8(+) T cell responses. Here we investigated the effects of in vivo CD40 stimulation on the survival and function of tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells in a mouse melanoma model system. We found that agonistic anti-CD40 antibody treatment alone of tumor-bearing mice accelerated the deletion of tumor-antigen-specific T cells. However, long-term survival and function of tumor-antigen-specific T cells could be achieved when viral immunization with tumor antigen and anti-CD40 treatment were combined. This rescue of CD8(+) T cells could not be easily replicated by inflammatory or antigen-specific stimuli alone, demonstrating the specificity of signals that regulate the deletion or survival of tumor-specific T cells. These results demonstrate that opposing effects can be elicited by CD40 stimulation in vivo and suggest the need for caution in using this treatment for cancer patients.

Immunological adjuvants promote activated T cell survival via induction of Bcl-3.

Injection of soluble protein antigen into animals causes abortive proliferation of the responding T cells. Immunological adjuvants boost T cell responses at least in part by increasing the survival of activated T cells during and after the initial proliferative phase of their clonal expansion. To understand how adjuvants promote T cell survival, we used gene microarrays to analyze gene expression in T cells activated either with antigen alone or in the presence of two different adjuvants. Among the genes whose expression was increased by both adjuvants was the IkappaB family member Bcl-3. Retroviral infection experiments showed that expression of Bcl-3 increased survival of activated T cells in vitro and in vivo. Adjuvants may therefore improve survival of activated T cells via induction of Bcl-3.

Observation of antigen-dependent CD8+ T-cell/ dendritic cell interactions in vivo.

In order to track hematopoetic cells of all lineages unambiguously at all stages of development, we have developed C57BL/6 mice that express a transgene coding for green fluorescent protein (GFP) under control of the human ubiquitin C promoter. These mice, called UBI-GFP/BL6, express GFP in all tissues examined, with high levels of GFP expression observed in hematopoetic cells. UBI-GFP/BL6 mice are unique in that B cells, T cells, and dendritic cells have distinct levels of GFP fluorescence. In cell transfer experiments, leukocytes from UBI-GFP/BL6 mice are readily identified by FACS or fluorescence microscopy. We demonstrate that transplanted UBI-GFP/BL6 dendritic cells are easily identified in secondary lymphoid tissues. Direct interactions between individual dendritic cells and multiple naïve CD8+ T cells are observed in lymph nodes within 12 h of cell transfer and require loading of the dendritic cells with the appropriate peptide antigen. Dendritic cells undergo specific morphologic changes following interactions with antigen-specific T cells.

T cells compete for access to antigen-bearing antigen-presenting cells.

These studies tested whether antigenic competition between T cells occurs. We generated CD8(+) T cell responses in H-2(b) mice against the dominant ovalbumin epitope SIINFEKL (ova8) and subdominant epitope KRVVFDKL, using either vaccinia virus expressing ovalbumin (VV-ova) or peptide-pulsed dendritic cells. CD8(+) T cell responses were visualized by major histocompatibility complex class I-peptide tetrameric molecules. Transfer of transgenic T cells with high affinity for ova8 (OT1 T cells) completely inhibited the response of host antigen-specific T cells to either antigen, demonstrating that T cells can directly compete with each other for response to antigen. OT1 cells also inhibited CD8(+) T cell responses to an unrelated peptide, SIYRYGGL, providing it was presented on the same dendritic cells as ova8. These inhibitions were not due to a more rapid clearance of virus or antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by the OT1 cells. Rather, the inhibition was caused by competition for antigen and antigen-bearing cells, since it could be overcome by the injection of large numbers of antigen-pulsed dendritic cells. These results imply that common properties of T cell responses, such as epitope dominance and secondary response affinity maturation, are the result of competitive interactions between antigen-bearing APC and T cell subsets.

Genomic-scale analysis of gene expression in resting and activated T cells.

Recent advances in gene array technology and isolation of lymphocytes now allow comprehensive analysis of gene expression in many different types of T cells. So far only a few sets of results have been published. However it is already clear that these analyses provide accurate measurements of gene expression in T cells. This technology offers the first opportunity to examine global and subtle changes in gene expression in response to specific stimuli.

Activation changes the spectrum but not the diversity of genes expressed by T cells.

During activation T cells are thought to change their patterns of gene expression dramatically. To find out whether this is true for T cells activated in animals, the patterns of genes expressed in resting T cells and T cells 8 and 48 hr after activation were examined by using Affymetrix gene arrays. Gene arrays gave accurate comparisons of gene expression in the different cell types because the expression of genes known to vary during activation changed as expected. Of the approximately 6,300 genes assessed by the arrays, about one-third were expressed to appreciable extents in any of the T cells tested. Thus, resting T cells express a surprisingly large diversity of genes. The patterns of gene expression changed considerably within 8 hr of T cell activation but returned to a disposition more like that of resting T cells within 48 hr of exposure to antigen. Not unexpectedly, the activated T cells expressed genes associated with cell division at higher levels than resting T cells. The resting T cells expressed a number of cytokine receptor genes and some genes thought to suppress cell division, suggesting that the state of resting T cells is not a passive failure to respond to extant external stimuli.

An inverse relationship between T cell receptor affinity and antigen dose during CD4(+) T cell responses in vivo and in vitro.

Multimeric peptide/class II MHC staining reagents were synthesized and shown to bind with appropriate specificity to T cell hybridomas. A small, expanded population of T cells detected with one of these reagents in peptide-immunized C57BL/10 mice persisted for several months. This population expanded further on secondary immunization. Equating the extent of binding of this reagent to T cell receptor affinity, we saw little correlation of immunizing peptide dose to T cell receptor affinity at the peak of the primary response. However, there was an inverse relation between peptide dose and the apparent receptor affinity of the T cells that were present several months after a primary response or after a secondary stimulation either in vivo or in vitro.

CD8+ T cells become nonresponsive (anergic) following activation in the presence of costimulation.

CD8+ T cells stimulated in vitro with anti-TCR mAb and B7-1 or ICAM-1 produce IL-2 and clonally expand. Effector function is acquired within 3 days, but proliferation ceases and the cells begin to die by apoptosis. Stimulation in vivo with B7-1-expressing allogeneic tumor results in the same sequence of events with a comparable time course. In both cases, the cells become anergic within 3 or 4 days of responding; they can no longer respond by producing IL-2 and proliferating, but can still be stimulated to proliferate in response to exogenous IL-2. This activation-induced nonresponsiveness (AINR) is not simply a consequence of ongoing cell death; cytokines that promote survival (IL-7 or IFN-alpha) or proliferation (human IL-2) do not restore the ability to produce IL-2 in response to costimulation. Although similar to the anergy described for CD4+ T cell clones, AINR differs in that it results from an initial stimulation with both signal 1 and signal 2. AINR appears to be an aspect of the normal differentiation of fully stimulated CD8+ T cells. It is probably important in regulating CTL responses; it limits the initial T helper-independent response and converts it to a response that requires T cell help to be sustained and further expanded. When the initial helper-independent response is not sufficient to clear Ag, and if help is not available, AINR likely results in tolerance to the Ag.

Inflammatory cytokines provide a third signal for activation of naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.

The effects of inflammatory cytokines on naive T cells have been studied using MHC protein/peptide complexes on microspheres, thus avoiding the use of APCs whose functions may be affected by the cytokines. IL-1, but not IL-12, increased proliferation of CD4+ T cells in response to Ag and IL-2, which is consistent with effects on in vivo priming of CD4+ cells. In contrast, proliferation of CD8+ T cells to Ag and IL-2 required IL-12, and IL-12 replaced adjuvant in stimulating an in vivo response to peptide. These results support a model in which distinct inflammatory cytokines act directly on naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to provide a third signal, along with Ag and IL-2, to optimally activate differentiation and clonal expansion.

T-cell survival.

Like other cells, T cells are dependent on signals from their environment for their survival. Resting T cells are supported in vitro by cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-7. The latter two cytokines are made constitutively in animals and hence might affect the lifetimes of their resting T cells. Resting T cells are also kept alive by interaction with an as yet unidentified molecule on the surface of other cells. Activated T cells are also supported in vitro by members of two families of these proteins, the IL-2 family and the interferon-alpha beta family. Members of the latter family may have effects on activated cells in vivo. Thus although both resting and activated T cells require signals to keep themselves alive, the signals are different for the two types of cells. This perhaps allows the immune response to control the numbers of activated cells during infections without compromising its pool of precursor, resting T cells.

Qualitative differences between naive and memory T cells make a major contribution to the more rapid and efficient memory CD8+ T cell response.

CD8+ T cells are present at a higher frequency following a primary response, and these memory cells exhibit qualitative differences from naive cells. The importance of these differences vs increased precursor frequency in making a memory response more rapid and efficient has been unclear. Adoptive transfer of 2C TCR transgenic CD8+ T cells into normal recipients, followed by i.p. challenge with allogeneic P815 tumor, results in a long-lived memory population that includes both endogenous host CD8+ T cells and 2C cells. The 2C cells can be identified, using 1B2 mAb specific for the TCR, and thus used as an indicator of the properties of the memory cells. The memory cells have a heterogeneous surface phenotype, and their distribution in lymphoid organs, blood, and peripheral sites is distinct from that of naive cells. Upon rechallenge with Ag, memory cells access the peritoneal cavity much more rapidly than do naive cells (12 h vs 5 days). This appears to result from a requirement for naive cells to interact with Ag before they can efficiently migrate to inflammatory sites, while this is not required for memory cells. In addition, memory cells exhibit some cytolytic activity before rechallenge with Ag, and potent cytolytic activity is present in the peritoneal cavity within 12 h of rechallenge. Comparison of primary and memory responses in mice having similar frequencies of Ag-specific precursors demonstrated that the more rapid migration and the immediate effector function of at least some memory cells contribute very substantially to making a memory response at a peripheral site more rapid and efficient.

Migration and activation of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells upon in vivo stimulation with allogeneic tumor.

The response of CD8+ T cells to allogeneic tumor was studied by adoptive transfer of cells from TCR transgenic 2C mice specific for Ld alloantigen. Transferred cells were monitored during the course of a response to i.p. challenge with live P815 (H-2d) using the 1B2 mAb specific for the 2C TCR. Tumor was present in the draining LN and spleen within 3 to 4 days of challenge. The first changes in 1B2+ cells occurred in the spleen on day 4; VLA-4 expression increased in an Ag-specific manner and L-selectin expression decreased in an Ag-nonspecific manner. The number of 1B2+ cells in the spleen declined over days 4 to 6. The first detectable increase in CD25 expression and blast transformation was in the peritoneal cavity beginning days 5 and 6. Clonal expansion was largely limited to this site and was maximal on day 8. As expansion occurred in the peritoneal cavity; the number of 1B2+ cells in the draining LN and spleen also increased. These cells had an activated phenotype (CD44(high), VLA-4(high)) but most did not express CD25 and were not blasts. These results suggest that initial Ag recognition in the spleen results in altered expression of adhesion receptors so that cells gain access to the peritoneal cavity where they undergo clonal expansion and differentiation. Following the response, 1B2+ cells decline in number but a memory population (CD44(high), L-selectin(high and low)) persists for long times in the spleen and LN.

Comparative sequence analysis of the reovirus S4 genes from 13 serotype 1 and serotype 3 field isolates.

The reovirus sigma 3 protein is a major outer capsid protein that may function to regulate translation within infected cells. To facilitate the understanding of sigma 3 structure and functions and the evolution of mammalian reoviruses, we sequenced cDNA copies of the S4 genes from 10 serotype 3 and 3 serotype 1 reovirus field isolates and compared these sequences with sequences of prototypic strains of the three reovirus serotypes. We found that the sigma 3 proteins are highly conserved: the two longest conserved regions contain motifs proposed to function in binding zinc and double-stranded RNA. We used the 16 viral isolates to investigate the hypothesis that structural interactions between sigma 3 and the cell attachment protein, sigma 1, constrain their evolution and to identify a determinant within sigma 3 that is in close proximity to the sigma 1 hemagglutination site.