Ecological countermeasures to prevent pathogen spillover and subsequent pandemics.

Substantial global attention is focused on how to reduce the risk of future pandemics. Reducing this risk requires investment in prevention, preparedness, and response. Although preparedness and response have received significant focus, prevention, especially the prevention of zoonotic spillover, remains largely absent from global conversations. This oversight is due in part to the lack of a clear definition of prevention and lack of guidance on how to achieve it. To address this gap, we elucidate the mechanisms linking environmental change and zoonotic spillover using spillover of viruses from bats as a case study. We identify ecological interventions that can disrupt these spillover mechanisms and propose policy frameworks for their implementation. Recognizing that pandemics originate in ecological systems, we advocate for integrating ecological approaches alongside biomedical approaches in a comprehensive and balanced pandemic prevention strategy.

Governing Ecological Connectivity in Cross-Scale Dependent Systems.

Ecosystem management and governance of cross-scale dependent systems require integrating knowledge about ecological connectivity in its multiple forms and scales. Although scientists, managers, and policymakers are increasingly recognizing the importance of connectivity, governmental organizations may not be currently equipped to manage ecosystems with strong cross-boundary dependencies. Managing the different aspects of connectivity requires building social connectivity to increase the flow of information, as well as the capacity to coordinate planning, funding, and actions among both formal and informal governance bodies. We use estuaries in particular the San Francisco Estuary, in California, in the United States, as examples of cross-scale dependent systems affected by many intertwined aspects of connectivity. We describe the different types of estuarine connectivity observed in both natural and human-affected states and discuss the human dimensions of restoring beneficial physical and ecological processes. Finally, we provide recommendations for policy, practice, and research on how to restore functional connectivity to estuaries.

Acoustic wave response to groove arrays in model ears.

Many mammals and some owls have parallel grooved structures associated with auditory structures that may be exploiting acoustic products generated by groove arrays. To test the hypothesis that morphological structures in the ear can manipulate acoustic information, we expose a series of similar-sized models with and without groove arrays to different sounds in identical conditions and compare their amplitude and frequency responses. We demonstrate how two different acoustic signals are uniquely influenced by the models. Depending on multiple factors (i.e., array characteristics, acoustic signal used, and distance from source) the presence of an array can increase the signal strength of select spectral components when compared to a model with no array. With few exceptions, the models with arrays increased the total amplitude of acoustic signals over that of the smooth model at all distances we tested up to 160 centimeters. We conclude that the ability to uniquely alter the signal based on an array's characteristics is evolutionarily beneficial and supports the concept that different species have different array configurations associated with their biological needs.

Ridge number in bat ears is related to both guild membership and ear length.

The ears of many mammals have a set of uniformly spaced horizontal ridges that form groove arrays. Contact of coherent waves (e.g. acoustic waves) with a series of slits or grooves causes diffraction, which produces constructive and destructive interference patterns. Increases in signal strength will occur but will depend on the frequencies involved, the groove number and their separations. Diffraction effects can happen for a wide range of frequencies and wavelengths, but no array can diffract wavelengths greater than twice the groove separation, and it is for those wavelengths comparable in size with the groove separation that the effects are greatest. For example, when ridges in bat ears are 1 mm apart, the strongest influence will occur for a 1 mm wavelength which corresponds to a frequency of 343 kHz. If bats could use these wavelengths, it would help them to resolve objects or surface textures of about 0.5 mm. Given how critical acoustics are for bat function, we asked whether bats may be taking advantage of diffraction effects generated by the grooves. We hypothesize that groove number varies with bat foraging strategy. Examining 120 species, we found that groove number is related to both guild and ear length. Bats in guilds that glean prey items from foliage or ground have on average more grooves than bats in other guilds. Harmonics generated by echolocation calls are the most likely source for the wavelengths that would correspond to the groove separations. We apply the physical principles of wave reflection, diffraction, and superposition to support the hypothesis that acoustic responses generated from grooves may be useful to bats. We offer an explanation why some bat species do not have grooves. We also discuss the presence of groove arrays in non-echolocating Chiropterans, and five additional mammalian orders.

Making habitat connectivity a reality.

Although a plethora of habitat-connectivity plans exists, protecting and restoring connectivity through on-the-ground action has been slow. We identified challenges to and opportunities for connectivity conservation through a literature review of project implementation, a workshop with scientists and conservation practitioners, 3 case studies of connectivity projects, and interviews with conservation professionals. Connectivity challenges and solutions tended to be context specific, dependent on land-ownership patterns, socioeconomic factors, and the policy framework. Successful connectivity implementation tended to be associated with development and promotion of a common vision among diverse sets of stakeholders, including nontraditional conservation actors, such as water districts and recreation departments, and with communication with partners and the public. Other factors that lead to successful implementation included undertaking empirical studies to prioritize and validate corridors and the identification of related co-benefits of corridor projects. Engaging partners involved in land management and planning, such as nongovernmental conservation organizations, public agencies, and private landowners, is critical to effective strategy implementation. A clear regulatory framework, including unambiguous connectivity conservation mandates, would increase public resource allocation, and incentive programs are needed to promote private sector engagement. Connectivity conservation must move more rapidly from planning to implementation. We provide an evidence-based solution composed of key elements for successful on-the-ground connectivity implementation. We identified the social processes necessary to advance habitat connectivity for biodiversity conservation and resilient landscapes under climate change.

A simulation-based evaluation of methods for inferring linear barriers to gene flow.

Different analytical techniques used on the same data set may lead to different conclusions about the existence and strength of genetic structure. Therefore, reliable interpretation of the results from different methods depends on the efficacy and reliability of different statistical methods. In this paper, we evaluated the performance of multiple analytical methods to detect the presence of a linear barrier dividing populations. We were specifically interested in determining if simulation conditions, such as dispersal ability and genetic equilibrium, affect the power of different analytical methods for detecting barriers. We evaluated two boundary detection methods (Monmonier's algorithm and WOMBLING), two spatial Bayesian clustering methods (TESS and GENELAND), an aspatial clustering approach (STRUCTURE), and two recently developed, non-Bayesian clustering methods [PSMIX and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC)]. We found that clustering methods had higher success rates than boundary detection methods and also detected the barrier more quickly. All methods detected the barrier more quickly when dispersal was long distance in comparison to short-distance dispersal scenarios. Bayesian clustering methods performed best overall, both in terms of highest success rates and lowest time to barrier detection, with GENELAND showing the highest power. None of the methods suggested a continuous linear barrier when the data were generated under an isolation-by-distance (IBD) model. However, the clustering methods had higher potential for leading to incorrect barrier inferences under IBD unless strict criteria for successful barrier detection were implemented. Based on our findings and those of previous simulation studies, we discuss the utility of different methods for detecting linear barriers to gene flow.

Genes to ecosystems: exploring the frontiers of ecology with one of the smallest biological units.

Genes and their expression levels in individual species can structure whole communities and affect ecosystem processes. Although much has been written about community and ecosystem phenotypes with a few model systems, such as poplar and goldenrod, here we explore the potential application of a community genetics approach with systems involving invasive species, climate change and pollution. We argue that community genetics can reveal patterns and processes that otherwise might remain undetected. To further facilitate the community genetics or genes-to-ecosystem concept, we propose four community genetics postulates that allow for the conclusion of a causal relationship between the gene and its effect on the ecosystem. Although most current studies do not satisfy these criteria completely, several come close and, in so doing, begin to provide a genetic-based understanding of communities and ecosystems, as well as a sound basis for conservation and management practices.