Relationship between behavioral and physiological indicators of pain, critical care patients' self-reports of pain, and opioid administration.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the accuracy of inferences about critical care patients' pain based on physiological and behavioral indicators and to assess the relationship between registered nurse and patient pain scores and doses of opioids administered. DESIGN: Descriptive, comparative analysis. SETTING: Three intensive care units and two postanesthesia care units in two hospitals. SUBJECTS: Fourteen critical care nurses who conducted 114 pain assessments on 31 surgical patients. INTERVENTIONS: Nurses used a pain assessment and intervention notation algorithm that contained lists of behavioral and physiological indicators of pain to make inferences about a patient's pain intensity. Fourteen registered nurses completed up to five pain assessments on each patient over a 4-hr period. Following both the physiological and behavioral ratings, nurses rated the patients' pain intensity, using a 0 to 10 numeric rating scale, and they asked patients to provide a self-report of pain intensity, using a similar numeric rating scale. Nurses then administered an intravenous dose of an opioid from a sliding scale prescription. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Moderate-to-strong correlations were found between the number of behavioral indicators at times 1 through 5 and between the number of physiological indicators and nurses' ratings of the patients' pain intensity at times 1 through 4 (p < .05). Although nurses' pain ratings were consistently lower than patients' pain ratings across the five time points, these differences were not significant. The amount of opioid analgesic administered by the nurse correlated more frequently with nurses' pain ratings than with patients' self-reports of pain intensity. CONCLUSIONS: The use of a detailed, standardized pain assessment and intervention notation algorithm that incorporates behavioral and physiological indicators may assist healthcare professionals in making relatively accurate assessments of a patient's pain intensity. Further research is needed to determine the specific decision-making processes and criteria that healthcare professionals use to choose doses of analgesics to administer to critically ill patients.

Clinical judgment and management of postoperative pain in critical care patients.

BACKGROUND: Acute pain is a significant problem in critical care patients. Although many barriers to successful assessment and management of pain in critical care patients have been noted, little is known about how critical care nurses make clinical judgments when assessing and managing patients' pain. OBJECTIVE: This qualitative analysis is part of a pilot study evaluating nurses' use of a pain assessment and intervention notation algorithm in patients in critical care areas who have limited communication abilities after abdominal or thoracic surgery. METHOD: Transcribed audiotapes of nurse participants' "thinking aloud" while using the pain assessment and intervention notation algorithm were analyzed by using interpretive phenomenology. The interpretive account is based on 31 tape recordings of 14 nurses caring for 41 patients (12 patients in the ICU and 29 patients in the postanesthesia care unit). FINDINGS: The two domains of clinical judgment found were (1) assessing the patient and (2) balancing interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Many nurses' reports showed that they accurately assessed their patients' needs for analgesics. Through testing of and learning from their patients' responses, nurses were able to give amounts of analgesics that diminished patients' postoperative pain. Additionally, nurses had to balance analgesic administration against the patients' hemodynamic and respiratory conditions, medical plan and prescriptions, and the desires of the patients and the patients' families.