ABSTRACT
Reversible phosphorylation plays a crucial role in regulating the activity of enzymes and other proteins in all living organisms. Particularly, the phosphorylation of transcription factors can modulate their capability to regulate downstream target genes. In plants, basic domain-containing leucine-zipper (bZIP) transcription factors have an important function in the regulation of many developmental processes and adaptive responses to the environment. By a comprehensive sequence analysis, we identified a set of highly conserved, potentially phospho-accepting serines within the DNA-binding domain of plant bZIPs. Structural modelling revealed that these serines are in physical contact with the DNA and predicts that their phosphorylation will have a major influence on the DNA-binding activity of plant bZIPs. In support of this, we show, by means of a quantitative in vitro binding assay, that phosphorylation-mimicking substitutions of some of these serines strongly interfere with the DNA binding of two prototypical Arabidopsis bZIPs, namely AtZIP63 and HY5. Our data suggest that the identified serines could serve as in vivo targets for kinases and phosphatases, allowing the fine-tuning of bZIP factor activity at the DNA-protein interaction level.
Subject(s)
Arabidopsis Proteins/metabolism , Arabidopsis/metabolism , Basic-Leucine Zipper Transcription Factors/metabolism , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Serine/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Arabidopsis/genetics , Arabidopsis Proteins/genetics , Basic-Leucine Zipper Transcription Factors/genetics , DNA, Plant/genetics , DNA, Plant/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation, Plant , Models, Molecular , Molecular Sequence Data , Mutagenesis, Site-Directed , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Phosphorylation , Protein ConformationABSTRACT
Amino acid transport in plants is mediated by at least two large families of plasma membrane transporters. Arabidopsis thaliana, a nonmycorrhizal species, is able to grow on media containing amino acids as the sole nitrogen source. Arabidopsis amino acid permease (AAP) subfamily genes are preferentially expressed in the vascular tissue, suggesting roles in long-distance transport between organs. We show that the broad-specificity, high-affinity amino acid transporter LYSINE HISTIDINE TRANSPORTER1 (LHT1), an AAP homolog, is expressed in both the rhizodermis and mesophyll of Arabidopsis. Seedlings deficient in LHT1 cannot use Glu or Asp as sole nitrogen sources because of the severe inhibition of amino acid uptake from the medium, and uptake of amino acids into mesophyll protoplasts is inhibited. Interestingly, lht1 mutants, which show growth defects on fertilized soil, can be rescued when LHT1 is reexpressed in green tissue. These findings are consistent with two major LHT1 functions: uptake in roots and supply of leaf mesophyll with xylem-derived amino acids. The capacity for amino acid uptake, and thus nitrogen use efficiency under limited inorganic N supply, is increased severalfold by LHT1 overexpression. These results suggest that LHT1 overexpression may improve the N efficiency of plant growth under limiting nitrogen, and the mutant analyses may enhance our understanding of N cycling in plants.
