Taxonomic shifts in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities with shade and soil nitrogen across conventionally managed and organic coffee agroecosystems.

The composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) communities should reflect not only responses to host and soil environments, but also differences in functional roles and costs vs. benefits among arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The coffee agroecosystem allows exploration of the effects of both light and soil fertility on AMF communities, because of the variation in shade and soil nutrients farmers generate through field management. We used high-throughput ITS2 sequencing to characterize the AMF communities of coffee roots in 25 fields in Costa Rica that ranged from organic management with high shade and no chemical fertilizers to conventionally managed fields with minimal shade and high N fertilization, and examined relationships between AMF communities and soil and shade parameters with partial correlations, NMDS, PERMANOVA, and partial least squares analysis. Gigasporaceae and Acaulosporaceae dominated coffee AMF communities in terms of relative abundance and richness, respectively. Gigasporaceae richness was greatest in conventionally managed fields, while Glomeraceae richness was greatest in organic fields. While total AMF richness and root colonization did not differ between organic and conventionally managed fields, AMF community composition did; these differences were correlated with soil nitrate and shade. OTUs differing in relative abundance between conventionally managed and organic fields segregated into four groups: Gigasporaceae associated with high light and nitrate availability, Acaulosporaceae with high light and low nitrate availability, Acaulosporaceae and a single relative of Rhizophagus fasciculatus with shade and low nitrate availability, and Claroideoglomus/Glomus with conventionally managed fields but uncorrelated with shade and soil variables. The association of closely related taxa with similar shade and light availabilities is consistent with phylogenetic trait conservatism in AM fungi.

Contrasting Patterns of Functional Diversity in Coffee Root Fungal Communities Associated with Organic and Conventionally Managed Fields.

The structure and function of fungal communities in the coffee rhizosphere are influenced by crop environment. Because coffee can be grown along a management continuum from conventional application of pesticides and fertilizers in full sun to organic management in a shaded understory, we used coffee fields to hold host constant while comparing rhizosphere fungal communities under markedly different environmental conditions with regard to shade and inputs. We characterized the shade and soil environment in 25 fields under conventional, organic, or transitional management in two regions of Costa Rica. We amplified the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of fungal DNA from coffee roots in these fields and characterized the rhizosphere fungal community via high-throughput sequencing. Sequences were assigned to guilds to determine differences in functional diversity and trophic structure among coffee field environments. Organic fields had more shade, a greater richness of shade tree species, and more leaf litter and were less acidic, with lower soil nitrate availability and higher soil copper, calcium, and magnesium availability than conventionally managed fields, although differences between organic and conventionally managed fields in shade and calcium and magnesium availability depended on region. Differences in richness and community composition of rhizosphere fungi between organic and conventionally managed fields were also correlated with shade, soil acidity, and nitrate and copper availability. Trophic structure differed with coffee field management. Saprotrophs, plant pathogens, and mycoparasites were more diverse, and plant pathogens were more abundant, in organic than in conventionally managed fields, while saprotroph-plant pathogens were more abundant in conventionally managed fields. These differences reflected environmental differences and depended on region.IMPORTANCE Rhizosphere fungi play key roles in ecosystems as nutrient cyclers, pathogens, and mutualists, yet little is currently known about which environmental factors and how agricultural management may influence rhizosphere fungal communities and their functional diversity. This field study of the coffee agroecosystem suggests that organic management not only fosters a greater overall diversity of fungi, but it also maintains a greater richness of saprotrophic, plant-pathogenic, and mycoparasitic fungi that has implications for the efficiency of nutrient cycling and regulation of plant pathogen populations in agricultural systems. As well as influencing community composition and richness of rhizosphere fungi, shade management and use of fungicides and synthetic fertilizers altered the trophic structure of the coffee agroecosystem.

Newborn screening for homocystinurias: Recent recommendations versus current practice.

PURPOSE: To assess how the current practice of newborn screening (NBS) for homocystinurias compares with published recommendations. METHODS: Twenty-two of 32 NBS programmes from 18 countries screened for at least one form of homocystinuria. Centres provided pseudonymised NBS data from patients with cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency (CBSD, n = 19), methionine adenosyltransferase I/III deficiency (MATI/IIID, n = 28), combined remethylation disorder (cRMD, n = 56) and isolated remethylation disorder (iRMD), including methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency (MTHFRD) (n = 8). Markers and decision limits were converted to multiples of the median (MoM) to allow comparison between centres. RESULTS: NBS programmes, algorithms and decision limits varied considerably. Only nine centres used the recommended second-tier marker total homocysteine (tHcy). The median decision limits of all centres were ≥ 2.35 for high and ≤ 0.44 MoM for low methionine, ≥ 1.95 for high and ≤ 0.47 MoM for low methionine/phenylalanine, ≥ 2.54 for high propionylcarnitine and ≥ 2.78 MoM for propionylcarnitine/acetylcarnitine. These decision limits alone had a 100%, 100%, 86% and 84% sensitivity for the detection of CBSD, MATI/IIID, iRMD and cRMD, respectively, but failed to detect six individuals with cRMD. To enhance sensitivity and decrease second-tier testing costs, we further adapted these decision limits using the data of 15 000 healthy newborns. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the favorable outcome of early treated patients, NBS for homocystinurias is recommended. To improve NBS, decision limits should be revised considering the population median. Relevant markers should be combined; use of the postanalytical tools offered by the CLIR project (Collaborative Laboratory Integrated Reports, which considers, for example, birth weight and gestational age) is recommended. tHcy and methylmalonic acid should be implemented as second-tier markers.

The GlpF residue Trp219 is part of an amino-acid cluster crucial for aquaglyceroporin oligomerization and function.

The vestibule loop regions of aquaglyceroporins are involved in accumulation of glycerol inside the channel pore. Even though most loop regions do not show high sequence similarity among aquaglyceroporins, loop E is highly conserved in aquaglyceroporins, but not in members of the homologous aquaporins. Specifically, a tryptophan residue is extremely conserved within this loop. We have investigated the role of this residue (Trp219) that deeply protrudes into the protein and potentially interacts with adjacent loops, using the E. coli aqualgyeroporin GlpF as a model. Replacement of Trp219 affects the activity of GlpF and impairs the stability of the tetrameric protein. Furthermore, we have identified an amino acid cluster involving Trp219 that stabilizes the GlpF tetramer. Based on our results we propose that Trp219 is key for formation of a defined vestibule structure, which is crucial for glycerol accumulation as well as for the stability of the active GlpF tetramer.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Morbidity and Mortality for Preterm Neonates Admitted to a Tertiary Neonatal Intensive Care Unit.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess whether in-hospital morbidity or mortality differed by race/ethnicity for preterm neonates admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). STUDY DESIGN: In a retrospective cohort study, preterm infants, < 37 weeks, were admitted to the NICU from 1994 to 2009. Exclusions included structural anomalies and aneuploidy. Primary outcome was in-hospital mortality (IHM). Secondary outcomes were respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), interventricular hemorrhage (IVH), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Sub-analysis of very preterm (VPT) infants, < 28 weeks, was performed. Five racial/ethnic groups (REGs) were compared: White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Mixed. Associations were modeled by logistic regression. White neonates (WNs) were the referent group. Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for remaining REGs were reported. p value was significant at 5% for overall tests and at Bonferroni-corrected level < 0.0125 for between-race comparisons with WNs. RESULTS: Four thousand nine hundred fifty-five preterm neonates were identified; 153 were excluded leaving 4802 for analysis. After controlling covariates that were chosen a priori, there was no difference across REGs for IHM (all between-race comparison p values > 0.0125). There was a significant difference in RDS among Black neonates (BNs) (aOR 0.57, 95% CI 0.45-0.73; p < 0.001) and Hispanic neonates (HNs) (aOR 0.67, 95% CI 0.50-0.89; p = 0.005) compared to WNs. The risk of ROP was significantly different across REGs with HNs having a 70% increase in ROP (aOR 1.70, 95% CI 1.15-2.49; p = 0.008) and Mixed neonates (MNs) experiencing a 55% reduction (aOR 0.45, 95% CI 0.29-0.68; p < 0.001) compared to WNs. There was no difference in IVH or NEC across REGs (all p values > 0.0125). In the VPT cohort sub-analysis, BNs experienced a significant 59% reduction in IHM compared to WNs (BNs aOR 0.41, 95% CI 0.22-0.73; p = 0.003). MNs experienced a 46% reduction in ROP compared to WNs (aOR 0.54, 95% CI 0.35-0.81; p = 0.004). There was no difference in RDS, IVH, or NEC in very preterm infants across REGs (all between comparison p values > 0.0125). CONCLUSION: In preterm neonates, in-hospital mortality does not significantly differ across racial and ethnic groups. However, in very preterm infants, in-hospital mortality for Black neonates is improved. There are morbidity differences (RDS, ROP) seen among racial/ethnic groups.

The Hemoglobin Homolog Cytoglobin in Smooth Muscle Inhibits Apoptosis and Regulates Vascular Remodeling.

OBJECTIVE: The role of hemoglobin and myoglobin in the cardiovascular system is well established, yet other globins in this context are poorly characterized. Here, we examined the expression and function of cytoglobin (CYGB) during vascular injury. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We characterized CYGB content in intact vessels and primary vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells and used 2 different vascular injury models to examine the functional significance of CYGB in vivo. We found that CYGB was strongly expressed in medial arterial VSM and human veins. In vitro and in vivo studies indicated that CYGB was lost after VSM cell dedifferentiation. In the rat balloon angioplasty model, site-targeted delivery of adenovirus encoding shRNA specific for CYGB prevented its reexpression and decreased neointima formation. Similarly, 4 weeks after complete ligation of the left common carotid, Cygb knockout mice displayed little to no evidence of neointimal hyperplasia in contrast to their wild-type littermates. Mechanistic studies in the rat indicated that this was primarily associated with increased medial cell loss, terminal uridine nick-end labeling staining, and caspase-3 activation, all indicative of prolonged apoptosis. In vitro, CYGB could be reexpressed after VSM stimulation with cytokines and hypoxia and loss of CYGB sensitized human and rat aortic VSM cells to apoptosis. This was reversed after antioxidant treatment or NOS2 (nitric oxide synthase 2) inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that CYGB is expressed in vessels primarily in differentiated medial VSM cells where it regulates neointima formation and inhibits apoptosis after injury.

Toxoplasmosis, Parvovirus, and Cytomegalovirus in Pregnancy.

There are several infections in adults that warrant special consideration in pregnant women given the potential fetal consequences. Among these are toxoplasmosis, parvovirus B19, and cytomegalovirus. These infections have an important impact on the developing fetus, depending on the timing of infection. This article reviews the modes of transmission as well as maternal and neonatal effects of each of these infections. In addition, the article outlines recommended testing, fetal surveillance, and treatment where indicated.

Seronegative Maternal Ocular Myasthenia Gravis and Delayed Transient Neonatal Myasthenia Gravis.

Background Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disorder with fluctuating muscle weakness, divided into generalized and localized (ocular) forms. Maternal antibodies to acetylcholine receptors cross the placenta and may cause transient neonatal myasthenia gravis (TNMG). We present a case of seronegative maternal ocular MG and delayed TNMG. Case A 29-year-old G3P1011 underwent cesarean birth of a male infant who developed oxygen desaturation requiring supplemental oxygen on day of life (DOL) 3. Based on the clinical course and after exclusion of other diagnoses, the infant was diagnosed with TNMG. Infant's condition improved spontaneously and he was weaned off supplemental oxygen and discharged home on DOL 12. Conclusion Infants born to mothers with seronegative localized (ocular) MG are also susceptible to TNMG which may be late in onset.

Referral rates in Swiss primary care with a special emphasis on reasons for encounter.

QUESTIONS UNDER STUDY: Referrals from primary to secondary care reflect a crucial role of primary care physicians (PCPs). Most referral rates are based on the number of consultations, rather than on the number of problems addressed during consultations (reasons for encounter = RFE). The aim of the study was to update data on consultations, RFE and referrals in Swiss primary care and calculate a referral rate based on RFE rather than on the number of consultations. METHOD: Cross-sectional study in Swiss primary care. PCPs collected data on consultations on 15 different days in three nonconsecutive months in 2012/2013. Demographic data of patients and up to six RFE per consultation were collected. For each RFE the PCP had to indicate whether a referral was initiated. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Ninety PCPs (18.9% females) participated and 24 774 consultations with 42 890 RFE (corresponding to 1.73 [standard deviation 1.07] RFE per consultation) were recorded. A total of 2 427 RFE (of 2 341 consultations) led to a referral, corresponding to a referral rate of 9.44% (95% confidence interval [CI] 9.08-9.81%) based on consultations and 5.65% (95% CI 5.43-5.87%) based on the number of RFE. CONCLUSIONS: An average of 1.7 RFE per consultation and a broad clinical spectrum of problems were presented in primary care; nevertheless, 94.3% of all problems were solved in primary care, reflecting the crucial role of PCPs as a coordinator of healthcare.

The Escherichia coli Envelope Stress Sensor CpxA Responds to Changes in Lipid Bilayer Properties.

The Cpx stress response system is induced by various environmental and cellular stimuli. It is also activated in Escherichia coli strains lacking the major phospholipid, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). However, it is not known whether CpxA directly senses changes in the lipid bilayer or the presence of misfolded proteins due to the lack of PE in their membranes. To address this question, we used an in vitro reconstitution system and vesicles with different lipid compositions to track modulations in the activity of CpxA in different lipid bilayers. Moreover, the Cpx response was validated in vivo by monitoring expression of a PcpxP-gfp reporter in lipid-engineered strains of E. coli. Our combined data indicate that CpxA responds specifically to different lipid compositions.

Mutational analyses of YqjA, a Tvp38/DedA protein of E. coli.

Membrane proteins of the DedA/Tvp38 protein family are involved in membrane integrity and virulence of pathogenic organisms. However, the structure and exact function of any member of this large protein family are still unclear. In the present study we analyzed the functional and structural properties of a DedA homolog. Purified YqjA variants from Escherichia coli are detectable in different oligomeric states and specific homo-interaction of YqjA monomers in the membrane were confirmed by formation of a disulfide bond in the C-terminal transmembrane helix. Moreover, alanine scanning mutagenesis exhibited different interaction sites crucial for YqjA activity vs. dimer formation.

Anti-inflammatory immune skewing is atheroprotective: Apoe−/−FcγRIIb−/− mice develop fibrous carotid plaques.

BACKGROUND: Stroke, caused by carotid plaque rupture, is a major cause of death in the United States. Whereas vulnerable human plaques have higher Fc receptor (FcγR) expression than their stable counterparts, how FcγR expression impacts plaque histology is unknown. We investigated the role of FcγRIIb in carotid plaque development and stability in apolipoprotein (Apo)e−/− and Apoe−/−FcγRIIb−/− double knockout (DKO) animals. METHODS AND RESULTS: Plaques were induced by implantation of a shear stress­modifying cast around the carotid artery. Plaque length and stenosis were followed longitudinally using ultrasound biomicroscopy. Immune status was determined by flow cytometry, cytokine release, immunoglobulin G concentration and analysis of macrophage polarization both in plaques and in vitro. Surprisingly, DKO animals had lower plaque burden in both carotid artery and descending aorta. Plaques from Apoe−/− mice were foam­cell rich and resembled vulnerable human specimens, whereas those from DKO mice were fibrous and histologically stable. Plaques from DKO animals expressed higher arginase 1 (Arg­1) and lower inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), indicating the presence of M2 macrophages. Analysis of blood and cervical lymph nodes revealed higher interleukin (IL)­10, immune complexes, and regulatory T cells (Tregs) and lower IL­12, IL­1ß, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF­α) in DKO mice. Similarly, in vitro stimulation produced higher IL­10 and Arg­1 and lower iNOS, IL­1ß, and TNF­α in DKO versus Apoe−/− macrophages. These results define a systemic anti­inflammatory phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: We hypothesized that removal of FcγRIIb would exacerbate atherosclerosis and generate unstable plaques. However, we found that deletion of FcγRIIb on a congenic C57BL/6 background induces an anti­inflammatory Treg/M2 polarization that is atheroprotective.

When two turn into one: evolution of membrane transporters from half modules.

The recently increasing number of atomic structures for active transporters has not only revealed strong conservation in the architecture of sequence-unrelated transporter families, but also identified a unifying element called the 'inverted repeat topology,' which is found in nearly all transporter folds to date. Indeed, most membrane transporters consist of two or more domains with similar structure, so-called repeats. It is tempting to speculate that transporters have evolved by duplication of one repeat followed by gene fusion and modification events. An intriguing question is, whether recent genes encoding such a 'half-transporter' still exist as independent folding units. Although it seems likely that the evolution of membrane transport proteins, which harbor internal repeats, is linked to these minimal structural building blocks, their identification in the absence of structural data represents a major challenge, as sequence homology is not an issue. In this review we discuss two protein families, the DedA family and the SWEET family, being potential half-transporters and putative ancestors for two of the most abundant secondary transporter families, the MFS family and the LeuT-fold family.

Mercury bioaccumulation in Southern Appalachian birds, assessed through feather concentrations.

Mercury contamination in wildlife has rarely been studied in the Southern Appalachians despite high deposition rates in the region. From 2006 to 2008 we sampled feathers from 458 birds representing 32 species in the Southern Appalachians for total mercury and stable isotope δ (15)N. Mercury concentrations (mean ± SE) averaged 0.46 ± 0.02 µg g(-1) (range 0.01-3.74 µg g(-1)). Twelve of 32 species had individuals (7 % of all birds sampled) with mercury concentrations higher than 1 µg g(-1). Mercury concentrations were 17 % higher in juveniles compared to adults (n = 454). In adults, invertivores has higher mercury levels compared to omnivores. Mercury was highest at low-elevation sites near water, however mercury was detected in all birds, including those in the high elevations (1,000-2,000 m). Relative trophic position, calculated from δ (15)N, ranged from 2.13 to 4.87 across all birds. We fitted linear mixed-effects models to the data separately for juveniles and year-round resident adults. In adults, mercury concentrations were 2.4 times higher in invertivores compared to omnivores. Trophic position was the main effect explaining mercury levels in juveniles, with an estimated 0.18 ± 0.08 µg g(-1) increase in feather mercury for each one unit rise in trophic position. Our research demonstrates that mercury is biomagnifying in birds within this terrestrial mountainous system, and further research is warranted for animals foraging at higher trophic levels, particularly those associated with aquatic environments downslope from montane areas receiving high mercury deposition.

Homologs of the yeast Tvp38 vesicle-associated protein are conserved in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria.

Vesicle transfer processes in eukaryotes depend on specific proteins, which mediate the selective packing of cargo molecules for subsequent release out of the cells after vesicle fusion to the plasma membrane. The protein Tvp38 is conserved in yeasts and higher eukaryotes and potentially involved in vesicle transfer processes at the Golgi membrane. Members of the so-called "SNARE-associated proteins of the Tvp38-family" have also been identified in prokaryotes and those belong to the DedA protein family. Tvp38/DedA proteins are also conserved in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts. While only a single member of this family appears to be present in chloroplasts, cyanobacterial genomes typically encode multiple homologous proteins. Mainly based on our understanding of the DedA-homologous proteins of Escherichia coli, it appears likely that the function of these proteins in chloroplast and cyanobacteria involves stabilizing and organizing the structure of internal membrane systems.

Orai3 is an estrogen receptor α-regulated Ca²âº channel that promotes tumorigenesis.

Store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) encoded by Orai1 proteins is a ubiquitous Ca(2+)-selective conductance involved in cellular proliferation and migration. We recently described up-regulation of Orai3 channels that selectively mediate SOCE in estrogen receptor α-expressing (ERα(+)) breast cancer cells. However, the connection between ERα and Orai3 and the role of Orai3 in tumorigenesis remain unknown. Here, we show that ERα knockdown decreases Orai3 mRNA (by ∼63%) and protein (by ∼44%) with no effect on Orai1. ERα knockdown decreases Orai3-mediated SOCE (by ∼43%) and the corresponding Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) current (by ∼42%) in ERα(+) MCF7 cells. The abrogation of SOCE in MCF7 cells on ERα knockdown can be rescued by ectopic expression of Orai3. ERα activation increased Orai3 expression and SOCE in MCF7 cells. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and thrombin stimulate Ca(2+) influx into MCF7 cells through Orai3. Orai3 knockdown inhibited SOCE-dependent phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2; by ∼44%) and focal adhesion kinase (FAK; by ∼46%) as well as transcriptional activity of nuclear factor for activated T cells (NFAT; by ∼49%). Significantly, Orai3 knockdown selectively decreased anchorage-independent growth (by ∼58%) and Matrigel invasion (by ∼44%) of ERα(+) MCF7 cells with no effect on ERα(-) MDA-MB231 cells. Moreover, Orai3 knockdown inhibited ERα(+) cell tumorigenesis in immunodeficient mice (∼66% reduction in tumor volume). These data establish Orai3 as an ERα-regulated channel and a potential selective therapeutic target for ERα(+) breast cancers.

Co-operation between different targeting pathways during integration of a membrane protein.

Membrane protein assembly is a fundamental process in all cells. The membrane-bound Rieske iron-sulfur protein is an essential component of the cytochrome bc(1) and cytochrome b(6)f complexes, and it is exported across the energy-coupling membranes of bacteria and plants in a folded conformation by the twin arginine protein transport pathway (Tat) transport pathway. Although the Rieske protein in most organisms is a monotopic membrane protein, in actinobacteria, it is a polytopic protein with three transmembrane domains. In this work, we show that the Rieske protein of Streptomyces coelicolor requires both the Sec and the Tat pathways for its assembly. Genetic and biochemical approaches revealed that the initial two transmembrane domains were integrated into the membrane in a Sec-dependent manner, whereas integration of the third transmembrane domain, and thus the correct orientation of the iron-sulfur domain, required the activity of the Tat translocase. This work reveals an unprecedented co-operation between the mechanistically distinct Sec and Tat systems in the assembly of a single integral membrane protein.

Molecular dissection of TatC defines critical regions essential for protein transport and a TatB-TatC contact site.

The twin arginine transport (Tat) system transports folded proteins across the prokaryotic cytoplasmic membrane and the plant thylakoid membrane. TatC is the largest and most conserved component of the Tat machinery. It forms a multisubunit complex with TatB and binds the signal peptides of Tat substrates. Here we have taken a random mutagenesis approach to identify substitutions in Escherichia coli TatC that inactivate protein transport. We identify 32 individual amino acid substitutions that abolish or severely compromise TatC activity. The majority of the inactivating substitutions fall within the first two periplasmic loops of TatC. These regions are predicted to have conserved secondary structure and results of extensive amino acid insertion and deletion mutagenesis are consistent with these conserved elements being essential for TatC function. Three inactivating substitutions were identified in the fifth transmembrane helix of TatC. The inactive M205R variant could be suppressed by mutations affecting amino acids in the transmembrane helix of TatB. A physical interaction between TatC helix 5 and the TatB transmembrane helix was confirmed by the formation of a site-specific disulphide bond between TatC M205C and TatB L9C variants. This is the first molecular contact site mapped to single amino acid level between these two proteins.

Ultrasound biomicroscopy for longitudinal studies of carotid plaque development in mice: validation with histological endpoints.

Atherosclerosis is responsible for the death of thousands of Americans each year. The carotid constriction model of plaque development has recently been presented as a model for unstable plaque formation in mice. In this study we 1) validate ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) for the determination of carotid plaque size, percent stenosis, and plaque development in live animals, 2) determine the sensitivity of UBM in detecting changes in blood flow induced by carotid constriction and 3) test whether plaque formation can be predicted from blood flow parameters measured by UBM. Carotid plaques were induced by surgical constriction in Apo E⁻/⁻ mice. Arteries were imaged bi-weekly by UBM, at which time PW-Doppler measurements of proximal blood flow, as well as plaque length and percent stenosis were determined. Histology was performed 9 weeks post surgery. When compared to whole mount post-mortem measurements, UBM accurately reported carotid plaque length. Percent stenosis, based on transverse B-mode UBM measurements, correlated well with that calculated from histological sections. PW-Doppler revealed that constriction reduced maximum systolic velocity (v(max)) and duration of the systolic velocity peak (t(s)/t(t)). Pre-plaque (2 week post-surgery) PW-Doppler parameters (v(max) and t(s)/t(t)) were correlated with plaque length at 9 weeks, and were predictive of plaque formation. Correlation of initiating PW-Doppler parameters (v(max) and t(s)/t(t)) with resulting plaque length established the degree of flow disturbance required for subsequent plaque development and demonstrated its power for predicting plaque development.

Signal integration by the Cpx-envelope stress system.

The Cpx-envelope stress system coordinates the expression and assembly of surface structures important for the virulence of Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. It is comprised of the membrane-anchored sensor kinase CpxA, the cytosolic response regulator CpxR and the accessory protein CpxP. Characteristic of the group of two-component systems, the Cpx system responds to a broad range of stimuli including pH, salt, metals, lipids and misfolded proteins that cause perturbation in the envelope. Moreover, the Cpx system has been linked to inter-kingdom signalling and bacterial cell death. However, although signal specificity has been assumed, for most signals the mechanism of signal integration is not understood. Recent structural and functional studies provide the first insights into how CpxP inhibits CpxA and serves as sensor for misfolded pilus subunits, pH and salt. Here, we summarize and reflect on the current knowledge on signal integration by the Cpx-envelope stress system.