Cognition, temperament, and cerebral blood flow velocity in toddlers and preschool children with sleep-disordered breathing or behavioral insomnia of childhood.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive decrements, problematic behaviors, and increased cerebral blood flow velocities (CBFVs) have been reported in children aged 3-7 years with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). Whether similar impairments exist in younger children or those with behavioral insomnia of childhood (BIC) remains unclear. This study aimed to compare cognition and temperament in children aged 1-5 years with SDB or BIC to healthy control children, and to investigate whether cognitive or behavioral deficits associated with sleep problems are related to changes in CBFV. METHOD: Toddlers and preschool-aged children (12-67 months) who had been referred for the clinical evaluation of SDB (n = 20) or BIC (n = 13) and a comparative sample of non-snoring healthy sleepers (controls; n = 77) were recruited from the community. Children underwent cognitive assessment (Mullen's Scale of Early Learning) and measurement of resting bilateral CBFV in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) using Transcranial Doppler. Parents completed temperament scales (Early Childhood or Childhood Behavior Questionnaire), a sleep problem questionnaire (Pediatric Sleep Problem Survey Instrument) and performed home-based pediatric sleep monitoring (Actigraphy and Sleep Diary). RESULTS: SDB children demonstrated impaired receptive skills, more hyperactive and energetic temperaments, and higher bilateral CBFV than controls and children with BIC. Logistic regression analyses indicated that impaired cognition, temperamental difficulties, and increased CBFV are independently associated with SDB. CONCLUSIONS: During early childhood, problematic temperaments, cognitive deficits, and altered cerebrovascular functioning are associated with SDB but not BIC. CBFV does not appear to mediate these daytime deficits and instead may be an independent outcome of SDB. The findings support the need for an early intervention in pediatric SDB.

Sleep, executive functioning and behaviour in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to examine sleep, neurocognitive and behavioural functioning in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D) compared to controls and to test whether sleep quality mediates the relationship between diabetes and neurocognitive and behavioural deficits. METHODS: Participants include 49 children and adolescents with T1D (recruited from a hospital clinic) and 36 healthy controls (age range = 6-16 years). Parents completed a survey consisting of the Sleep Disturbances Scale for Children, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions, and the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2. Diabetic and demographic parameters were collated from medical records. The survey was posted to participants. RESULTS: Children with T1D compared to controls reported a higher frequency of sleep problems, and mild deficits in executive and behavioural functioning. Mediational analyses revealed that sleep quality fully mediated metacognitive functioning, externalised problematic behaviour, and internalised problematic behaviour, but not behavioural regulation. CONCLUSIONS: Rather than the direct impact of T1D on daytime functioning, it is the consequent impact of T1D on sleep and the resulting sleep disruption which can explain much of the neurocognitive and behavioural deficits reported in children with T1D. Maintaining good nocturnal glycaemic control may play a much larger role than previously thought in regulating daytime functioning in children with T1D.

Pediatric Sleep Survey Instrument--a screening tool for sleep disordered breathing.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to assess the construct validity and clinical application of the Pediatric Sleep Survey Instrument (PSSI) as a tool to screen for sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in children. METHODS: Polysomnography (PSG) outcomes and PSSI subscale scores were compared between a clinical cohort (N = 87, 5-10 years, 62 M/25 F) and a nonsnoring community sample (N = 55, 5-10 years, 28 M/27 F). Group comparisons assessed the ability of the PSSI subscales to discriminate between the clinical and community cohorts. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves assessed construct validity, with the Apnea/Hypopnea Index (AHI) >5 events/h, OSA-18 score >60, and Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale (PDSS) above the 70th percentile as the target references. RESULTS: The clinical group had more respiratory events, respiratory-related arousals, fragmented sleep, and lower oxygen saturation nadir than the community group (p < 0.001 for all). PSSI subscale scores of Morning Tiredness, Night Arousals, SDB, and Restless Sleep were higher (p < 0.001 for all) in the clinical cohort, confirming the tool's ability to identify clinically relevant sleep problems. ROC curves confirmed the diagnostic accuracy of the SDB subscale against an AHI > 5 events/h (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.7), an OSA-18 score >60 (AUC = 0.7), and a PDSS score in the 70th percentile (AUC = 0.8). The Morning Tiredness subscale accurately predicted a PDSS score in the 70th percentile (AUC = 0.8). A cutoff score of 5 on the SDB subscale showed a sensitivity of 0.94 and a specificity of 0.76, correctly identifying 77 and 100 % of the clinical and community cohorts, respectively. CONCLUSION: The PSSI Sleep Disordered Breathing subscale is a valid tool for screening SDB and daytime sleepiness in children aged 5-10 years.

Sleep and neurocognitive functioning in children with eczema.

Sleep disruption in childhood is associated with clearly defined deficits in neurocognition and behaviour. Childhood eczema is also a potent cause of sleep disruption though it is unknown whether it too results in neurocognitive deficits. To test this hypothesis, neurocognitive (WISC-IV), parental-reported sleep quality (Sleep Disturbance Scale of Children (SDSC)) and overnight polysomnographic (PSG) data were collected in 21 children with eczema and 20 healthy controls (age range 6-16 years). Children with eczema had worse sleep quality on both PSG (notably increased nocturnal wakefulness, a higher number of stage shifts and a longer latency to REM onset) and parental report. In addition, they demonstrated significant neurocognitive deficits (especially verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning and to a lesser extent working memory) with a composite Full Scale IQ 16 points lower than controls. Parental reported sleep problems but not PSG parameters were correlated with reduced neurocognitive performance. However, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that eczema status was predictive while sleep fragmentation (parental or PSG) was not predictive of neurocognitive performance. As this is the first study to systematically examine neurocognitive functioning in children with eczema and given the finding of significant deficits it merits replication especially given the prevalence of the condition. The unanswered question is whether these cognitive deficits normalise with effective eczema treatment and if this is mediated by improvements in sleep architecture.

Craniofacial and upper airway morphology in pediatric sleep-disordered breathing: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Pediatric sleep-disordered breathing is a continuum, with primary snoring at one end, and complete upper airway obstruction, hypoxemia, and obstructive hypoventilation at the other. The latter gives rise to obstructive sleep apnea. An important predisposing factor in the development and progression of pediatric sleep-disordered breathing might be craniofacial disharmony. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to elucidate the association between craniofacial disharmony and pediatric sleep-disordered breathing. METHODS: Citations to potentially relevant published trials were located by searching PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The MetaRegister of controlled trials database was also searched to identify potentially relevant unpublished trials. Additionally, hand-searching, Google Scholar searches, and contact with experts in the area were undertaken to identify potentially relevant published and unpublished studies. Inclusion criteria were (1) randomized controlled trials, case-control trials, or cohort studies with controls; (2) studies in nonsyndromic children 0 to 18 years of age with a diagnosis of sleep-disordered breathing or obstructive sleep apnea by either a sleep disorders unit, screening questionnaire, or polysomnography; and (3) principal outcome measures of craniofacial or upper airway dimensions or proportions with various modalities of imaging for the craniofacial and neck regions. The quality of the studies selected was evaluated by assessing their methodologies. Treatment effects were combined by meta-analysis with the random-effects method. RESULTS: Children with obstructive sleep apnea and primary snoring show increased weighted mean differences in the ANB angle of 1.64° (P <0.0001) and 1.54° (P <0.00001), respectively, compared with the controls. An increased ANB angle was primarily due to a decreased SNB angle in children with primary snoring by 1.4° (P = 0.02). Children with obstructive sleep apnea had a distance from the posterior nasal spine to the nearest adenoid tissue measured along the PNS-basion line reduced by 4.17 mm (weighted mean difference) (P <0.00001) and a distance from the posterior nasal spine to the nearest adenoid tissue measured along the line perpendicular to the sella-basion line reduced by 3.12 mm (weighted mean difference) (P <0.0001) compared with the controls. CONCLUSIONS: There is statistical support for an association between craniofacial disharmony and pediatric sleep-disordered breathing. However, an increased ANB angle of less than 2° in children with obstructive sleep apnea and primary snoring, compared with the controls, could be regarded as having marginal clinical significance. Therefore, evidence for a direct causal relationship between craniofacial structure and pediatric sleep-disordered breathing is unsupported by this meta-analysis. There is strong support for reduced upper airway width in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Larger well-controlled trials are required to address the relationship of craniofacial and upper airway morphology to pediatric sleep-disordered breathing in all 3 dimensions.

Inconsistent sleep schedules and daytime behavioral difficulties in school-aged children.

OBJECTIVES: Current recommendations for healthy sleep in school-aged children are predominantly focused on optimal sleep duration (9-11h). However, given the importance of routine for circadian health, the stability of sleep/wake schedules may also be important, especially for daytime behavioral functioning. We examined the relationship between short sleep duration, sleep schedule instability and behavioral difficulties in a community sample of Australian children. METHODS: Children, aged 5-10 years (N=1622), without chronic health or psychological conditions, were recruited from primary schools in Adelaide, South Australia. A parent-report questionnaire was used to assess sleep/wake behavior. Behavioral functioning was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. RESULTS: Most children met sleep duration recommendations with approximately 5% reporting <9h and 3% >12h. Weekly variability of bed and rise times >1h were reported in up to 50% of children. Multinomial regression analysis revealed sleep duration <10h, bedtime latency >60 min, and bed and rise time variability >60 min significantly increased the risk of scoring in the 95th percentile for behavioral sub-scales. CONCLUSIONS: Inconsistent sleep schedules were common and, similar to short sleep duration, were associated with behavioral difficulties. Considering the lack of study in this area, further research is needed for the development of new recommendations, education and sleep health messages.

Differences in parental attitudes towards sleep and associations with sleep-wake patterns in Caucasian and Southeast Asian school-aged children in Australia.

Caucasian (N = 47) and Southeast (SE) Asian (N = 36) families completed a questionnaire on their attitudes toward sleep, as well as a 7-day sleep diary for their children aged 5 to 11 years. Cultural differences were found in the perceived importance of sleep, particularly compared to homework and belief of how much sleep a child needs. Differences were also found in sleep-wake behaviors and amount of time spent on homework, with SE Asian children reporting a shift in sleep timing and increased homework load compared to Caucasian counterparts. Parental attitudes toward sleep, perception of sleep need, and homework load were not associated with the regulation of actual sleep behaviors in children, regardless of cultural heritage.

Eczema, sleep, and behavior in children.

INTRODUCTION: There is a general consensus that sleep disruption in children causes daytime behavioral deficits. It is unclear if sleep disruption in children with eczema has similar effects particularly after controlling for known comorbid disorders such as asthma and rhinitis. METHODS: Parents of children (6-16 y) with eczema (n = 77) and healthy controls (n = 30) completed a validated omnibus questionnaire which included the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children, Conners Parent Rating Scale-Revised (S), Child Health Questionnaire, Children's Dermatology Life Quality Index, and additional items assessing eczema, asthma, rhinitis, and demographics. RESULTS: Compared to controls, children with eczema had a greater number of sleep problems with a greater percentage in the clinical range, lower quality of life, and higher levels of ADHD and oppositional behavior. They also had elevated rhinitis and asthma severity scores. Importantly, structural equation modelling revealed that the effect of eczema on the behavioral variables of Hyperactivity, ADHD Index, and Oppositional Behaviors were mediated through sleep with no direct effect of eczema on these behaviors. The comorbid atopic disorders of rhinitis and asthma also had independent effects on behavior mediated through their effects on sleep. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings suggest that the daytime behaviors seen in children with eczema are mediated independently by the effects of eczema, asthma, and rhinitis on sleep quality. These findings highlight the importance of sleep in eczematous children and its role in regulating daytime behavior.

Neurocognitive performance and behavior before and after treatment for sleep-disordered breathing in children.

Neurocognitive and behavioral problems are increasingly reported in children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). The impact of treatment for SDB on neurocognition and behavior is, therefore, an issue of increasing importance. To date, there has been little consideration given to the quality of studies when reviewing associated neurocognitive and behavioral problems in children with SDB, and furthermore, there has been little systematic review of treatment outcomes. The aim of this review was to provide an up-to-date and critical review of the current literature. Findings indicate a specific pattern of neurocognitive problems in children with SDB; however, the pattern of behavioral problems is less clear. Very few studies were found to provide a rigorous investigation of posttreatment neurocognitive and behavior outcomes. Despite this, relatively consistent improvements in global intelligence, attention, and visual spatial ability are shown; however, persistent deficits in other domains are also evident. For behavior, problems of hyperactivity, aggression or conduct problems, and somatic complaints improve following treatment. In contrast, symptoms of anxiety and social problems less consistently improve. These findings should aid in the development of more targeted investigations and well-designed studies exploring both the causative mechanisms and the treatment response for neurocognitive and behavior problems in children with SDB.

Chronic respiratory failure and neuromuscular disease.

The outlook for children with respiratory complications of neuromuscular disease has improved significantly in the past 15 years. This has been the result of many advances in clinical care, including improved monitoring of lung function and hypoventilation during sleep; coordinated respiratory care by experienced physicians with access to specialized respiratory services, especially physiotherapy; and, most importantly, the widespread introduction of noninvasive ventilation.

Differences in the association between obesity and obstructive sleep apnea among children and adolescents.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Overweight and obesity are thought to increase the risk of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) among children. However, previous results have been inconsistent and appear to be confounded by both ethnicity and the different ages of children studied. To determine whether the association between excess weight and OSAS varies with age across childhood, we assessed polysomnographic data from a series of Caucasian children and adolescents referred for clinical evaluation of snoring. METHODS: Sleep and OSAS severity were assessed using polysomnography in 234 children aged 2.0 to 18.0 years. All children were referred for overnight evaluation of suspected OSAS. Severity of OSAS as a function of body mass and age were then evaluated. RESULTS: Risk of OSAS among adolescents (age > or =12 years) was increased 3.5 fold with each standard-deviation increase in body mass index z-score. Risk of OSAS was not significantly increased with increasing body mass among younger children. CONCLUSIONS: Similar to adults, adolescent children show an increased risk for having OSAS in association with overweight and obesity. For Caucasian children, overweight and obesity should be considered a significant risk for OSAS among adolescents or from age 12 years, especially when in combination with other established risk factors, including snoring and adenotonsillar hypertrophy.

The role of beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) staining in the neuropathologic evaluation of sudden infant death and in the initiation of clinical investigations of subsequent siblings.

This report highlights the importance of undertaking immunohistochemical staining of the brains of infants who die unexpectedly, as it may not only assist with the evaluation of the cause of death in an individual infant but may also help with the clinical management of subsequent siblings. A 5-month-old male infant who died suddenly was found to have diffuse beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) staining in the brain, with no unusual features in his history, death scene examination, routine autopsy dissection, and ancillary tests to suggest any definite cause of death. Due to the beta-APP staining, the possibility of previous episodes of occult trauma, apparent life threatening events (ALTEs), and accidental or inflicted suffocation was raised in the autopsy report. As detailed analyses and investigations provided no supportive evidence for trauma or inflicted injury, hypoxia was clinically considered the most likely cause. Because of these concerns, sleeping oxygen saturation levels were monitored following the birth of a subsequent sibling who had normal APGAR scores and no evidence of any health problems. Oxygen desaturation to 70% occurred in association with a color change while on the postnatal ward, and a subsequent polysomnogram showed multiple episodic significant desaturations to around 80% in association with central apnea. Other testing was unremarkable. These cases demonstrate that beta-APP staining of the brain may not only provide clues as to possible mechanisms of death in pediatric forensic cases but may indicate a need for careful clinical evaluation of subsequent siblings for possible central apnea requiring oxygen therapy.

8. Investigation and treatment of upper-airway obstruction: childhood sleep disorders I.

Always take a history of snoring and sleep disturbance when reviewing children in primary care, as there is evidence that episodes of hypoxia and arousal during sleep may result in deficits in memory, attention and behaviour, in addition to the well known sequelae of growth failure, developmental delay and cor pulmonale. Check for changes in behaviour affecting school progress. To investigate for possible obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS), clinical examination, lateral neck x-ray (adenoidal hypertrophy) and overnight oximetry (desaturation episodes) are useful screening tests, but oximetry is best used in conjunction with polysomnography. A negative oximetry test does not exclude OSAS. Polysomnography is the best method for detecting and assessing the severity of OSAS in children, and is especially helpful for prioritising treatment and evaluating the risk of perioperative complications of adenotonsillectomy. Adenotonsillectomy is thought to "cure" (ie, symptoms disappear and overnight respiratory parameters are corrected) in about 80% of children with OSAS. The remaining 20% need ongoing evaluation and treatment. Further research is needed to determine the "true" prevalence of OSAS; what degrees of severity of upper-airway obstruction lead to morbidity requiring treatment; and whether the deficits in neurocognitive function associated with sleep-disordered breathing are fully correctable.

Natural history and familial relationships of infant spilling to 9 years of age.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the natural history of infant spilling (regurgitation/vomiting) during the first 2 years of life and to determine the relationship between infant spilling and gastroesophageal reflux (GER) symptoms at 9 years of age. METHODS: A prospective birth cohort was followed with daily symptom diaries during the first 2 years of life and reviewed at 9 years of age (range: 8-11 years). The prevalence of infant spilling during the first 2 years of life, the prevalence of GER symptoms between 8 and 11 years of age (mean age: 9.7 years), relative risk of infant spilling predisposing to GER symptoms at 9 years of age, and prevalence of maternal GER symptoms and relationship with infant spilling and GER at 9 years of age were measured. RESULTS: A total of 693 children who represented 83% of an original sample of 836 children and were followed for 2 years from birth with daily symptom diaries were contacted at 9 (8-11) years of age. Spilling of most feeds each day was common in infancy and reached a peak prevalence of 41% between 3 and 4 months of age and thereafter declined to < 5% between 13 and 14 months of age. Infants with spilling on 90 days or more during the first 2 years of life (classified as frequent spilling) were more likely to have GER symptoms at 9 years of age. Children with frequent infant spilling, compared with those with no spilling, had a relative risk of 2.3 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.3-4.0) of 1 or more GER symptoms at 9 years of age, 4.6 (95% CI: 1.5-13.8) for heartburn, 2.7 (95% CI: 1.4-5.5) for vomiting, and 4.7 (95% CI: 1.6-14.0) for acid regurgitation. Gender, breastfeeding, and environmental tobacco smoke exposure were not significant factors related to infant spilling. Prepregnancy smoking and smoking in the same room as the child at the 9-month and 18-month follow-ups had a significant effect on GER symptoms at 9 years of age. Infant spilling and GER at 9 years of age were significantly related to maternal GER symptoms but not to paternal GER symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Spilling in infancy is very common, but the majority of children settle by 13 to 14 months of age. However, those with frequent spilling (>90 days) are more likely to have GER symptoms at 9 years of age. In addition, a maternal history of GER was significantly related both to infant spilling and to GER at 9 years, suggesting that a genetic component may be involved. Physicians should consider studying children with a history of frequent infant spilling to determine whether this group is at increased risk for GER disease.