Structure-function analysis of ceTIR-1/hSARM1 explains the lack of Wallerian axonal degeneration in C. elegans.

Wallerian axonal degeneration (WD) does not occur in the nematode C. elegans, in contrast to other model animals. However, WD depends on the NADase activity of SARM1, a protein that is also expressed in C. elegans (ceSARM/ceTIR-1). We hypothesized that differences in SARM between species might exist and account for the divergence in WD. We first show that expression of the human (h)SARM1, but not ceTIR-1, in C. elegans neurons is sufficient to confer axon degeneration after nerve injury. Next, we determined the cryoelectron microscopy structure of ceTIR-1 and found that, unlike hSARM1, which exists as an auto-inhibited ring octamer, ceTIR-1 forms a readily active 9-mer. Enzymatically, the NADase activity of ceTIR-1 is substantially weaker (10-fold higher Km) than that of hSARM1, and even when fully active, it falls short of consuming all cellular NAD+. Our experiments provide insight into the molecular mechanisms and evolution of SARM orthologs and WD across species.

A duplex structure of SARM1 octamers stabilized by a new inhibitor.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in SARM1 as a potential breakthrough drug target for treating various pathologies of axon degeneration. SARM1-mediated axon degeneration relies on its TIR domain NADase activity, but recent structural data suggest that the non-catalytic ARM domain could also serve as a pharmacological site as it has an allosteric inhibitory function. Here, we screened for synthetic small molecules that inhibit SARM1, and tested a selected set of these compounds in a DRG axon degeneration assay. Using cryo-EM, we found that one of the newly discovered inhibitors, a calmidazolium designated TK106, not only stabilizes the previously reported inhibited conformation of the octamer, but also a meta-stable structure: a duplex of octamers (16 protomers), which we have now determined to 4.0 Å resolution. In the duplex, each ARM domain protomer is engaged in lateral interactions with neighboring protomers, and is further stabilized by contralateral contacts with the opposing octamer ring. Mutagenesis of the duplex contact sites leads to a moderate increase in SARM1 activation in cultured cells. Based on our data we propose that the duplex assembly constitutes an additional auto-inhibition mechanism that tightly prevents pre-mature activation and axon degeneration.

Structural basis for SARM1 inhibition and activation under energetic stress.

SARM1, an executor of axonal degeneration, displays NADase activity that depletes the key cellular metabolite, NAD+, in response to nerve injury. The basis of SARM1 inhibition and its activation under stress conditions are still unknown. Here, we present cryo-EM maps of SARM1 at 2.9 and 2.7 Å resolutions. These indicate that SARM1 homo-octamer avoids premature activation by assuming a packed conformation, with ordered inner and peripheral rings, that prevents dimerization and activation of the catalytic domains. This inactive conformation is stabilized by binding of SARM1's own substrate NAD+ in an allosteric location, away from the catalytic sites. This model was validated by mutagenesis of the allosteric site, which led to constitutively active SARM1. We propose that the reduction of cellular NAD+ concentration contributes to the disassembly of SARM1's peripheral ring, which allows formation of active NADase domain dimers, thereby further depleting NAD+ to cause an energetic catastrophe and cell death.