Sex and gender correlates of sexually polymorphic cognition.

BACKGROUND: Sexually polymorphic cognition (SPC) results from the interaction between biological (birth-assigned sex (BAS), sex hormones) and socio-cultural (gender identity, gender roles, sexual orientation) factors. The literature remains quite mixed regarding the magnitude of the effects of these variables. This project used a battery of classic cognitive tests designed to assess the influence of sex hormones on cognitive performance. At the same time, we aimed to assess the inter-related and respective effects that BAS, sex hormones, and gender-related factors have on SPC. METHODS: We recruited 222 adults who completed eight cognitive tasks that assessed a variety of cognitive domains during a 150-min session. Subgroups were separated based on gender identity and sexual orientation and recruited as follows: cisgender heterosexual men (n = 46), cisgender non-heterosexual men (n = 36), cisgender heterosexual women (n = 36), cisgender non-heterosexual women (n = 38), gender diverse (n = 66). Saliva samples were collected before, during, and after the test to assess testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone. Psychosocial variables were derived from self-report questionnaires. RESULTS: Cognitive performance reflects sex and gender differences that are partially consistent with the literature. Interestingly, biological factors seem to better explain differences in male-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., spatial), while psychosocial factors seem to better explain differences in female-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., verbal). CONCLUSION: Our results establish a better comprehension of SPC over and above the effects of BAS as a binary variable. We highlight the importance of treating sex as a biological factor and gender as a socio-cultural factor together since they collectively influence SPC.

Many studies show sex differences in cognitive abilities. In general, women outperform men in verbal tasks and fine motor skills, while men outperform women in spatial orientation and mental rotation tasks. These differences underlie research on sexually polymorphic cognition, a concept influenced by sex hormones (estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) as well as birth-assigned sex. In addition to these biological factors, socio-cultural gender factors such as gender identity (the gender we feel and embody), gender roles (masculine and feminine expressions based on stereotypes), as well as sexual orientation are all known to influence cognition as well. We provide a broader understanding by accounting for both sex and gender factors. Our team recruited 222 adults separated into 5 sub-groups based on birth-assigned sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation. Each participant completed eight sexually polymorphic cognitive tasks. In this 150-min experimental protocol, saliva samples were collected before, during, and after the test to assess testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone. Psychosocial variables were derived from self-report questionnaires. Results showed that spatial cognition was better explained by biological sex factors, while verbal cognition was better explained by socio-cultural gender factors. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the importance of considering sex-based and gender-based factors collectively and, respectively, when studying sex differences in cognition.

Sex/gender differences in cognitive abilities.

Sex/gender differences in cognitive sciences are riddled by conflicting perspectives. At the center of debates are clinical, social, and political perspectives. Front and center, evolutionary and biological perspectives have often focused on 'nature' arguments, while feminist and constructivist views have often focused on 'nurture arguments regarding cognitive sex differences. In the current narrative review, we provide a comprehensive overview regarding the origins and historical advancement of these debates while providing a summary of the results in the field of sexually polymorphic cognition. In so doing, we attempt to highlight the importance of using transdisciplinary perspectives which help bridge disciplines together to provide a refined understanding the specific factors that drive sex differences a gender diversity in cognitive abilities. To summarize, biological sex (e.g., birth-assigned sex, sex hormones), socio-cultural gender (gender identity, gender roles), and sexual orientation each uniquely shape the cognitive abilities reviewed. To date, however, few studies integrate these sex and gender factors together to better understand individual differences in cognitive functioning. This has potential benefits if a broader understanding of sex and gender factors are systematically measured when researching and treating numerous conditions where cognition is altered.

COVID-19 related stress and fears of contamination: the impact of feared self-perceptions.

Specific concerns have been raised for those suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly those suffering from contamination fear. Investigation in non-clinical and OCD samples have reported an increase in contamination symptoms in association with the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, stress related to COVID-19 has been found to be a major predictor of an increase in contamination symptoms. It has also been suggested that these effects may be accounted for by feared-self perceptions, that renders certain individuals more vulnerable to COVID-related stress and its effect on contamination-related symptomatology. We hypothesized that feared self-perceptions would predict COVID-19-related stress and that both feared self-perceptions and COVID-19-related stress would predict contamination symptoms while controlling for age, education and sex. To test this hypothesis, 1137 community participants completed online questionnaires. Path analysis confirmed our hypotheses highlighting the importance of feared self-perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic in its effect on stress and ensuing symptomatology. Further, women scored higher on questionnaires, but the relationship between feared self-perceptions, COVID-19-related stress and contamination symptoms remained similar. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

Combined oral contraceptives and mental health: Are adolescence and the gut-brain axis the missing links?

Combined oral contraceptives (containing synthetic forms of estradiol and progestins) are one of the most commonly used drugs among females. However, their effects on the gut-brain axis have not been investigated to a great extent despite clear evidence that suggest bi-directional interactions between the gut microbiome and endogenous sex hormones. Moreover, oral contraceptives are prescribed during adolescence, a critical period of development during which several brain structures and systems, such as hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, undergo maturation. Considering that oral contraceptives could impact the developing adolescent brain and that these effects may be mediated by the gut-brain axis, further research investigating the effects of oral contraceptives on the gut-brain axis is imperative. This article briefly reviews evidence from animal and human studies on the effects of combined oral contraceptives on the brain and the gut microbiota particularly during adolescence.

Exploring the sex and gender correlates of cognitive sex differences.

The correlates of cognitive sex differences are yet to be fully understood. Many biological and psychosocial factors modulate these cognitive abilities leading to mixed results in the scientific literature. The current study aims to explore the different parameters potentially influencing cognitive abilities acting in synergy. Sex and gender correlates of cognitive functioning were assessed in a sample of individuals ages 18 to 45 years (N = 87) from diverse sexual orientations. Sex hormones were assessed via saliva samples at four timepoints throughout the testing. Gender roles, sexual orientation and socio-demographics were measured via self-report questionnaires. Participants completed mental rotation and verbal fluency tasks. Men performed better than women at mental rotation, while no significant difference was found for verbal fluency. Significant positive associations were observed between estradiol and word fluency for the naturally cycling women compared to the women using oral contraception. While controlling for sex hormones, a significant interaction effect of sex by gender roles was identified for mental rotation among masculine women. These exploratory results suggest an effect principally driven by sex and sex hormones on cognitive performance that will need to be furthered with larger studies.

Psychoneuroendocrine protocol to comprehensively study sexually dimorphic cognition.

Background: A large body of research provides evidence for sex differences in cognitive abilities. These sex differences stem from the interplay between biological sex (e.g., birth-assigned sex, sex hormones) and psychosocial gender (e.g., gender identity, gender-roles, sexual orientation). Literature remains rather mixed with regards to the magnitude of sex and gender effects on cognitive abilities and mental health. Growing evidence shows that sex hormone assessment combined with measures of psychosocial gender may be fundamental to comprehensively understand individual differences in sexually dimorphic cognitive abilities. Objectives: This study protocol describes a sexually dimorphic cognitive battery to assess the influence of sex hormones on performance. In parallel, we aim to assess the inter-related effects that biological sex and psychosocial gender-based factors exert on cognition and mental health. Methods: Our projected sample includes 180 adult participants who are at least 18 years old. Sub-groups will be recruited based on birth-assigned sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation. Biological measures will be collected via salivary samples throughout testing to include sex hormones (testosterone, estradiol and progesterone) and stress hormones (cortisol). Demographic and psychosocial variables will be measured through self-report questionnaires. Participants will be required to complete eight classic cognitive tasks that assess a variety of cognitive domains in a 2-h testing session. Results and future directions: Results from this study provides unique insights into the correlates of cognitive sex differences and gender diversity. This will give us solid ground to further investigate these influences in clinical populations in which sex hormones and cognitive functioning are often altered.

Allostatic load and women's brain health: A systematic review.

Allostatic load represents the 'wear and tear' of chronic stress on the brain and body that may differ between men and women. A small but growing number of studies are assessing allostatic load in relation to mental health. The objective of this systematic review was to (1) assess sex differences in allostatic load and (2) identify allostatic load associations that are specific to women. We systematically searched for allostatic load studies that included psychosocial causes and/or psychiatric consequences. Our search focused on allostatic load studies that disaggregated by sex and that include women. Sixty-two studies were included in this systematic review. First, men appear to have higher allostatic load than women. Second, women show gender-specific variation for numerous factors such as age, race/ethnicity, adversities, social support, and health behaviors that influence associations between allostatic load and mental health. Recommendations are made to guide researchers advance sex and gender approaches.

Sex Differences and Gender Diversity in Stress Responses and Allostatic Load Among Workers and LGBT People.

Measuring biological sex differences and socio-cultural gender diversity provides insights into individual variation in stress physiology and the development of "sex-specific" diseases. PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In this selective review, we summarize recent findings that assess sex and gender in relation to the stress hormone cortisol and multi-systemic physiological dysregulation called allostatic load. The focus of this research centers on workers as well as sexual and gender minorities as these populations provide unique insights into sex and gender at various levels of analysis from the micro-level to the macro-level. RECENT FINDINGS: Male/female sex, sex hormones, gender identity, gender roles, and sexual orientation are all variables that are distinctly correlated with stress physiology. Beyond identifying patterns of vulnerability to stress-related diseases, pathways towards resilience are of high priority in emerging literature. Stress scientists must account for both sex and gender in biobehavioral research. Future directions should assess macro-level constructs like institutionalized gender, occupational sex composition, and structural stigma to better understand the social determinants of health.