An obesity paradox: an inverse correlation between body mass index and atherosclerosis of the aorta.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Morbid obesity generally has been associated with higher morbidity and mortality for a variety of diseases. However, a number of exceptions to this have been reported and referred to as the "obesity paradox." The purpose of the present study was to obtain objective data on aortic atherosclerosis and its relationship to body mass index (BMI, kg/m2), based on autopsy findings in a large cohort of overweight and obese decedents. METHODS: Decedents were ≥18 years who had autopsies between 2003 and 2014, a subset of whom were morbidly obese (BMI≥40). Autopsy findings were reviewed and compared to a control group (BMI<40) who had consecutive autopsies performed between January 2013 and June 2014. Atherosclerosis was assessed by gross pathologic examination using a semiquantitative grading scale (from 0 to 3), and for statistical analysis, the scores were stratified into two groups: nonsevere (<2) or severe (≥2). RESULTS: There were 304 decedents in the study: 66 were morbidly obese (BMI≥40), 94 were either Class I or II obese (BMI 30-40), 127 were either overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) or normal weight (BMI 20-24.9), and 17 were underweight (BMI<20). Decedents with mild atherosclerosis were significantly younger than those with severe disease (55.2 vs. 67.3, P<.0001). Decedents were further stratified by age and BMI. Univariate analysis revealed that decedents >60 years were more likely to have severe atherosclerosis than those ≤60 years (61% vs. 30%, P<.0001). There was a highly significant (P=.008) inverse relationship between severe aortic atherosclerosis and BMI. Twenty of 66 decedents (30%) with a BMI≥40 had severe atherosclerosis vs. 122 of 238 decedents (51%) with BMIs<40 (P=.001). As BMI increased, the probability of developing severe disease decreased. Hypertension increased the probability of having severe atherosclerosis (54% vs. 33%, P=.007). After adjusting for other covariates, multivariable analysis revealed that age and hypertension were still positively correlated with the severity of atherosclerosis (P=.014 and 0.028, respectively), and the inverse relationship between BMI and atherosclerosis remained (adjusted relative risk of BMI≥40 vs. <40=0.64, 95% confidence interval: 0.4-1; P=.03). CONCLUSIONS: Our data extend the previously described obesity paradox to another disease entity, atherosclerosis of the aorta. Morbid obesity appeared to have a protective effect for developing severe aortic atherosclerosis, for the reasons for which are yet to be determined. However, the mean age at death of decedents with BMIs≥40 was younger than those with BMIs in the 20-30 range (55.9 vs. 63.2 years, P=.001), confirming that morbid obesity was not associated with increased longevity.

Spontaneous formation of complex structures made from elastic membranes in an aluminum-hydroxide-carbonate system.

A popular playground for studying chemo-hydrodynamic patterns and instabilities is chemical gardens, also known as silicate gardens. In these systems, complex structures spontaneously form, driven by buoyant forces and either osmotic or mechanical pumps. Here, we report on systems that differ somewhat from classical chemical gardens in that the membranes are much more deformable and soluble. These properties lead to structures that self-construct and evolve in new ways. For example, they exhibit the formation of chemical balloons, a new growth mechanism for tubes, and also the homologous shrinking of these tubes. The stretching mechanism for the membranes is probably different than for other systems by involving membrane "self-healing." Other unusual properties are osmosis that sometimes occurs out of the structure and also small plumes that flow away from the structure, sometimes upwards, and sometimes downwards. Mathematical models are given that explain some of the observed phenomena.

Emergence of complex behavior in chemical cells: the system AlCl3-NaOH.

Chemical cells that spontaneously form in simple inorganic systems are presented. The cells are surrounded by semipermeable membranes that allow water and some ions to diffuse through. These cells exhibit dynamical behaviors that are typically associated with biological entities. These behaviors may be used to perform tasks such as rotation or linear translation in the vertical and horizontal directions. Yet another system builds "curtains". Behaviors are controlled by a complex network of physical and chemical processes that are organized in space and time. The type of dynamical behavior is determined by the chemical composition of the cell and the environment. By studying these systems we may learn general rules for the growth of living entities, or at least about the spontaneous growth of complex chemical structures. Understanding and mastering the synthesis of these systems may lead to new technologies where complex structures are grown rather than assembled.