Development of an immunoassay for aglycosylated murine IgG1 in mouse serum via generation of a specific tool antibody.

Aim: To develop a method for the quantitation of effector functionless mouse surrogate IgG1 drug molecules in mouse matrices. Materials & methods: A panel of antibodies that bound specifically to N297G mutation-containing mouse IgG molecules was generated in rats. The panel was screened to identify an antibody that could be used as both the capture and detection reagent in an electrochemiluminescent immunoassay. Results & conclusion: The quantitative assay developed with the N297G-specific antibody passed acceptance criteria across multiple IgG1 fragment crystallizable (Fc)-containing protein formats and provides accurate quantitation of the total levels of mouse surrogate protein Fc present in in vivo mouse serum samples. These results are useful in understanding drug integrity and the development of precise pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships.

Development of a potent high-affinity human therapeutic antibody via novel application of recombination signal sequence-based affinity maturation.

Therapeutic antibody development requires discovery of an antibody molecule with desired specificities and drug-like properties. For toxicological studies, a therapeutic antibody must bind the ortholog antigen with a similar affinity to the human target to enable relevant dosing regimens, and antibodies falling short of this affinity design goal may not progress as therapeutic leads. Herein, we report the novel use of mammalian recombination signal sequence (RSS)-directed recombination for complementarity-determining region-targeted protein engineering combined with mammalian display to close the species affinity gap of human interleukin (IL)-13 antibody 731. This fully human antibody has not progressed as a therapeutic in part because of a 400-fold species affinity gap. Using this nonhypothesis-driven affinity maturation method, we generated multiple antibody variants with improved IL-13 affinity, including the highest affinity antibody reported to date (34 fM). Resolution of a cocrystal structure of the optimized antibody with the cynomolgus monkey (or nonhuman primate) IL-13 protein revealed that the RSS-derived mutations introduced multiple successive amino-acid substitutions resulting in a de novo formation of a π-π stacking-based protein-protein interaction between the affinity-matured antibody heavy chain and helix C on IL-13, as well as an introduction of an interface-distant residue, which enhanced the light chain-binding affinity to target. These mutations synergized binding of heavy and light chains to the target protein, resulting in a remarkably tight interaction, and providing a proof of concept for a new method of protein engineering, based on synergizing a mammalian display platform with novel RSS-mediated library generation.

A novel approach for emerging and antibiotic resistant infections: Innate defense regulators as an agnostic therapy.

Innate Defense Regulators (IDRs) are short synthetic peptides that target the host innate immune system via an intracellular adaptor protein which functions at key signaling nodes. In this work, further details of the mechanism of action of IDRs have been discovered. The studies reported here show that the lead clinical IDR, SGX94, has broad-spectrum activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial infections caused by intracellular or extracellular bacteria and also complements the actions of standard of care antibiotics. Based on in vivo and primary cell culture studies, this activity is shown to result from the primary action of SGX94 on tissue-resident cells and subsequent secondary signaling to activate myeloid-derived cells, resulting in enhanced bacterial clearance and increased survival. Data from non-clinical and clinical studies also show that SGX94 treatment modulates pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels, thereby mitigating the deleterious inflammatory consequences of innate immune activation. Since they act through host pathways to provide both broad-spectrum anti-infective capability as well as control of inflammation, IDRs are unlikely to be impacted by resistance mechanisms and offer potential clinical advantages in the fight against emerging and antibiotic resistant bacterial infections.

Sequestosome-1/p62 is the key intracellular target of innate defense regulator peptide.

Innate defense regulator-1 (IDR-1) is a synthetic peptide with no antimicrobial activity that enhances microbial infection control while suppressing inflammation. Previously, the effects of IDR-1 were postulated to impact several regulatory pathways including mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 and CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein, but how this was mediated was unknown. Using a combined stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture-proteomics methodology, we identified the cytoplasmic scaffold protein p62 as the molecular target of IDR-1. Direct IDR-1 binding to p62 was confirmed by several biochemical binding experiments, and the p62 ZZ-type zinc finger domain was identified as the IDR-1 binding site. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis of p62 molecular complexes demonstrated that IDR-1 enhanced the tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced p62 receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) complex formation but did not affect tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced p62-protein kinase zeta complex formation. In addition, IDR-1 induced p38 MAPK activity in a p62-dependent manner and increased CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein beta activity, whereas NF-kappaB activity was unaffected. Collectively, these results demonstrate that IDR-1 binding to p62 specifically affects protein-protein interactions and subsequent downstream events. Our results implicate p62 in the molecular mechanisms governing innate immunity and identify p62 as a potential therapeutic target in both infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Ly49P recognition of cytomegalovirus-infected cells expressing H2-Dk and CMV-encoded m04 correlates with the NK cell antiviral response.

Natural killer (NK) cells are crucial in resistance to certain viral infections, but the mechanisms used to recognize infected cells remain largely unknown. Here, we show that the activating Ly49P receptor recognizes cells infected with mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) by a process that requires the presence of H2-D(k) and the MCMV m04 protein. Using H2 chimeras between H2-D(b) and -D(k), we demonstrate that the H2-D(k) peptide-binding platform is required for Ly49P recognition. We identified m04 as a viral component necessary for recognition using a panel of MCMV-deletion mutant viruses and complementation of m04-deletion mutant (Deltam04) virus infection. MA/My mice, which express Ly49P and H2-D(k), are resistant to MCMV; however, infection with Deltam04 MCMV abrogates resistance. Depletion of NK cells in MA/My mice abrogates their resistance to wild-type MCMV infection, but does not significantly affect viral titers in mice infected with Deltam04 virus, implicating NK cells in host protection through m04-dependent recognition. These findings reveal a novel mechanism of major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted recognition of virally infected cells by an activating NK cell receptor.

NK cell receptors and their MHC class I ligands in host response to cytomegalovirus: insights from the mouse genome.

The complex interaction between natural killer (NK) cells and cytomegalovirus is a paradigm of the co-evolution between genomes of large DNA viruses and their host immune systems. Both human and mouse cytomegalovirus posses numerous mechanisms to avoid NK cell detection. Linkage studies, positional cloning and functional studies in mice and cells, have led to the identification of key genes governing resistance to cytomegalovirus, including various NK cell activating receptors of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I. These receptors, however, seem to require either viral or host MHC class I molecules to operate recognition and elimination of the cytomegalovirus-infected cell leading to host resistance. Here we will review the genes and molecules involved in these mechanisms while contrasting their function with that of other NK cell receptors. Activating receptors of MHC class I may represent a window of therapeutic intervention during human infection with viruses, of which cytomegalovirus remains an important health threat.

Critical residues at the Ly49 natural killer receptor's homodimer interface determine functional recognition of m157, a mouse cytomegalovirus MHC class I-like protein.

NK cell function is regulated by Ly49 receptors in mice and killer cell Ig-like receptors in humans. Although inhibitory Ly49 and killer cell Ig-like receptors predominantly ligate classical MHC class I molecules, recent studies suggest that their activating counterparts recognize infection. The quintessential example is resistance to the mouse CMV in C57BL/6 mice, which depends on the functional recognition of m157, a mouse CMV-encoded MHC class I-like molecule, by Ly49H, an activating NK cell receptor. We have taken advantage of the natural variation in closely related members of the Ly49C-like receptors and the availability of Ly49 crystal structures to understand the molecular determinants of the Ly49H-m157 interaction and to identify amino acid residues discriminating between m157 binding and nonbinding receptors. Using a site-directed mutagenesis approach, we have targeted residues conserved in receptors binding to m157 (Ly49H and Ly49I(129)) but different from receptors lacking m157 recognition (Ly49C, Ly49I(B6), and Ly49U). Wild-type and mutant receptors were transfected into reporter cells, and physical binding as well as functional activation by m157 was studied. Our findings suggested that the Ly49 MHC class I contact "site 2," I226, may not be involved in m157 binding. In contrast, residue Y146 and G151, mapping at the receptor homodimer interface, are likely critical for functional recognition of the m157 glycoprotein. Our combined functional and three-dimensional modeling approach suggested that the architecture of the Ly49H dimer is crucial to accessing m157, but not MHC class I. These results link Ly49 homodimerization variability to the direct recognition of pathogen products.

Enemy at the gates: forward genetics of the mouse antiviral response.

The environment and the genetic constitution of both the pathogen and the host influence the severity and the outcome of viral infections. Whereas identification of the host component in humans remains challenging, recent progress in defining genes through analysis of mouse models of infection presenting natural or chemically induced variation in host susceptibility mark a fruitful period of gene discovery. This includes recognition that UNC93B1, which encodes an endocytic protein, is a susceptibility gene, providing an unexpected entry point to our understanding of the response against herpesvirus infection. By contrast, elucidation of alternative mechanisms of host resistance against mouse cytomegalovirus in inbred mouse strains has led to new insights regarding molecular recognition of the infected cells by natural killer cell MHC class I receptors. In addition, the conservation of genetic and functional aspects between mouse and human is enabling a rational pursuit of potential cures. With the continuous development of resources for experimental investigation of the genome, the production of new mutant alleles, and the phenotypic characterization of new models of infection, we predict that mouse genetic models will make an increasing contribution to our understanding of the genetic puzzle of host response to virus infection.

Epistasis between mouse Klra and major histocompatibility complex class I loci is associated with a new mechanism of natural killer cell-mediated innate resistance to cytomegalovirus infection.

Experimental infection with mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) has been used to elucidate the intricate host-pathogen mechanisms that determine innate resistance to infection. Linkage analyses in F(2) progeny from MCMV-resistant MA/My (H2 (k)) and MCMV-susceptible BALB/c (H2 (d)) and BALB.K (H2 (k)) mouse strains indicated that only the combination of alleles encoded by a gene in the Klra (also called Ly49) cluster on chromosome 6, and one in the major histocompatibility complex (H2) on chromosome 17, is associated with virus resistance. We found that natural killer cell-activating receptor Ly49P specifically recognized MCMV-infected cells, dependent on the presence of the H2 (k) haplotype. This binding was blocked using antibodies to H-2D(k) but not antibodies to H-2K(k). These results are suggestive of a new natural killer cell mechanism implicated in MCMV resistance, which depends on the functional interaction of the Ly49P receptor and the major histocompatibility complex class I molecule H-2D(k) on MCMV-infected cells.