Dissecting 16p11.2 hemi-deletion to study sex-specific striatal phenotypes of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are polygenic in nature and copy number variants (CNVs) are ideal candidates to study the nature of this polygenic risk. The disruption of striatal circuits is considered a central mechanism in NDDs. The 16p11.2 hemi-deletion (16p11.2 del/+) is one of the most common CNVs associated with NDD, and 16p11.2 del/+ mice show sex-specific striatum-related behavioral phenotypes. However, the critical genes among the 27 genes in the 16p11.2 region that underlie these phenotypes remain unknown. Previously, we applied a novel strategy to identify candidate genes associated with the sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice and highlighted three genes within the deleted region: thousand and one amino acid protein kinase 2 (Taok2), seizure-related 6 homolog-like 2 (Sez6l2), and major vault protein (Mvp). Using CRISPR/Cas9, we generated mice carrying null mutations in Taok2, Sez6l2, and Mvp (3 gene hemi-deletion (3g del/+)). Hemi-deletion of these 3 genes recapitulates sex-specific behavioral alterations in striatum-dependent behavioral tasks observed in 16p11.2 del/+ mice, specifically male-specific hyperactivity and impaired motivation for reward seeking. Moreover, RNAseq analysis revealed that 3g del/+ mice exhibit gene expression changes in the striatum similar to 16p11.2 del/+ mice exclusively in males. Subsequent analysis identified translation dysregulation and/or extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling as plausible molecular mechanisms underlying male-specific, striatum-dependent behavioral alterations. Interestingly, ribosomal profiling supported the notion of translation dysregulation in both 3g del/+ and 16p11.2 del/+ male mice. However, mice carrying a 4-gene deletion (with an additional deletion of Mapk3) exhibited fewer phenotypic similarities with 16p11.2 del/+ mice. Together, the mutation of 3 genes within the 16p11.2 region phenocopies striatal sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice. These results support the importance of a polygenic approach to study NDDs and underscore that the effects of the large genetic deletions result from complex interactions between multiple candidate genes.

Developmental Disruptions of the Dorsal Striatum in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an increasingly prevalent neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social and communication deficits as well as patterns of restricted, repetitive behavior. Abnormal brain development has long been postulated to underlie ASD, but longitudinal studies aimed at understanding the developmental course of the disorder have been limited. More recently, abnormal development of the striatum in ASD has become an area of interest in research, partially due to overlap of striatal functions and deficit areas in ASD, as well as the critical role of the striatum in early development, when ASD is first detected. Focusing on the dorsal striatum and the associated symptom domain of restricted, repetitive behavior, we review the current literature on dorsal striatal abnormalities in ASD, including studies on functional connectivity, morphometry, and cellular and molecular substrates. We highlight that observed striatal abnormalities in ASD are often dynamic across development, displaying disrupted developmental trajectories. Important findings include an abnormal trajectory of increasing corticostriatal functional connectivity with age and increased striatal growth during childhood in ASD. We end by discussing striatal findings from animal models of ASD. In sum, the studies reviewed here demonstrate a key role for developmental disruptions of the dorsal striatum in the pathogenesis of ASD. Directing attention toward these findings will improve our understanding of ASD and of how associated deficits may be better addressed.

Dissecting 16p11.2 hemi-deletion to study sex-specific striatal phenotypes of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are polygenic in nature and copy number variants (CNVs) are ideal candidates to study the nature of this polygenic risk. The disruption of striatal circuits is considered a central mechanism in NDDs. The 16p11.2 hemi-deletion (16p11.2 del) is one of the most common CNVs associated with NDD, and 16p11.2 del/+ mice show sex-specific striatum-related behavioral phenotypes. However, the critical genes among the 27 genes in the 16p11.2 region that underlie these phenotypes remain unknown. Previously, we applied a novel strategy to identify candidate genes associated with the sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice and identified 3 genes of particular importance within the deleted region: thousand and one amino acid protein kinase 2 (Taok2), seizure-related 6 homolog-like 2 (Sez6l2), and major vault protein (Mvp). Using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique, we generated 3 gene hemi-deletion (3g del/+) mice carrying null mutations in Taok2, Sez6l2, and Mvp. We assessed striatum-dependent phenotypes of these 3g del/+ mice in behavioral, molecular, and imaging studies. Hemi-deletion of Taok2, Sez6l2, and Mvp induces sex-specific behavioral alterations in striatum-dependent behavioral tasks, specifically male-specific hyperactivity and impaired motivation for reward seeking, resembling behavioral phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice. Moreover, RNAseq analysis revealed that 3g del/+ mice exhibit gene expression changes in the striatum similar to 16p11.2 del/+ mice, but only in males. Pathway analysis identified ribosomal dysfunction and translation dysregulation as molecular mechanisms underlying male-specific, striatum-dependent behavioral alterations. Together, the mutation of 3 genes within the 16p11.2 region phenocopies striatal sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice, unlike single gene mutation studies. These results support the importance of a polygenic approach to study NDDs and our novel strategy to identify genes of interest using gene expression patterns in brain regions, such as the striatum, which are impacted in these disorders.

Dissecting 16p11.2 hemi-deletion to study sex-specific striatal phenotypes of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are polygenic in nature and copy number variants (CNVs) are ideal candidates to study the nature of this polygenic risk. The disruption of striatal circuits is considered a central mechanism in NDDs. The 16p11.2 hemi-deletion (16p11.2 del) is one of the most common CNVs associated with NDD, and 16p11.2 del/+ mice show sex-specific striatum-related behavioral phenotypes. However, the critical genes among the 27 genes in the 16p11.2 region that underlie these phenotypes remain unknown. Previously, we applied a novel strategy to identify candidate genes associated with the sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice and identified 3 genes of particular importance within the deleted region: thousand and one amino acid protein kinase 2 ( Taok2 ), seizure-related 6 homolog-like 2 ( Sez6l2 ), and major vault protein ( Mvp ). Using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique, we generated 3 gene hemi-deletion (3g del/+) mice carrying null mutations in Taok2, Sez6l2 , and Mvp . We assessed striatum-dependent phenotypes of these 3g del/+ mice in behavioral, molecular, and imaging studies. Hemi-deletion of Taok2, Sez6l2 , and Mvp induces sex-specific behavioral alterations in striatum-dependent behavioral tasks, specifically male-specific hyperactivity and impaired motivation for reward seeking, resembling behavioral phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice. Moreover, RNAseq analysis revealed that 3g del/+ mice exhibit gene expression changes in the striatum similar to 16p11.2 del/+ mice, but only in males. Pathway analysis identified ribosomal dysfunction and translation dysregulation as molecular mechanisms underlying male-specific, striatum-dependent behavioral alterations. Together, the mutation of 3 genes within the 16p11.2 region phenocopies striatal sex-specific phenotypes of 16p11.2 del/+ mice, unlike single gene mutation studies. These results support the importance of a polygenic approach to study NDDs and our novel strategy to identify genes of interest using gene expression patterns in brain regions, such as the striatum, which are impacted in these disorders.

Ca2+-permeable TRPV1 pain receptor knockout rescues memory deficits and reduces amyloid-ß and tau in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) protein is a pain receptor that elicits a hot sensation when an organism eats the capsaicin of red chili peppers. This calcium (Ca2+)-permeable cation channel is mostly expressed in the peripheral nervous system sensory neurons but also in the central nervous system (e.g. hippocampus and cortex). Preclinical studies found that TRPV1 mediates behaviors associated with anxiety and depression. Loss of TRPV1 functionality increases expression of genes related to synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. Thus, we hypothesized that TRPV1 deficiency may modulate Alzheimer's disease (AD). We generated a triple-transgenic AD mouse model (3xTg-AD+/+) with wild-type (TRPV1+/+), hetero (TRPV1+/-) and knockout (TRPV1-/-) TRPV1 to investigate the role of TRPV1 in AD pathogenesis. We analyzed the animals' memory function, hippocampal Ca2+ levels and amyloid-ß (Aß) and tau pathologies when they were 12 months old. We found that compared with 3xTg-AD-/-/TRPV1+/+ mice, 3xTg-AD+/+/TRPV1+/+ mice had memory impairment and increased levels of hippocampal Ca2+, Aß and total and phosphorylated tau. However, 3xTg-AD+/+/TRPV1-/- mice had better memory function and lower levels of hippocampal Ca2+, Aß, tau and p-tau, compared with 3xTg-AD+/+/TRPV1+/+ mice. Examination of 3xTg-AD-derived primary neuronal cultures revealed that the intracellular Ca2+ chelator BAPTA/AM and the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine decreased the production of Aß, tau and p-tau. Taken together, these results suggested that TRPV1 deficiency had anti-AD effects and promoted resilience to memory loss. These findings suggest that drugs or food components that modulate TRPV1 could be exploited as therapeutics to prevent or treat AD.

Dorsal Hippocampal Actin Polymerization Is Necessary for Activation of G-Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor (GPER) to Increase CA1 Dendritic Spine Density and Enhance Memory Consolidation.

Activation of the membrane estrogen receptor G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in ovariectomized mice via the GPER agonist G-1 mimics the beneficial effects of 17ß-estradiol (E2) on hippocampal CA1 spine density and memory consolidation, yet the cell-signaling mechanisms mediating these effects remain unclear. The present study examined the role of actin polymerization and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation in mediating effects of dorsal hippocampally infused G-1 on CA1 dendritic spine density and consolidation of object recognition and spatial memories in ovariectomized mice. We first showed that object learning increased apical CA1 spine density in the dorsal hippocampus (DH) within 40 min. We then found that DH infusion of G-1 increased both CA1 spine density and phosphorylation of the actin polymerization regulator cofilin, suggesting that activation of GPER may increase spine morphogenesis through actin polymerization. As with memory consolidation in our previous work (Kim et al., 2016), effects of G-1 on CA1 spine density and cofilin phosphorylation depended on JNK phosphorylation in the DH. Also consistent with our previous findings, E2-induced cofilin phosphorylation was not dependent on GPER activation. Finally, we found that infusion of the actin polymerization inhibitor, latrunculin A, into the DH prevented G-1 from increasing apical CA1 spine density and enhancing both object recognition and spatial memory consolidation. Collectively, these data demonstrate that GPER-mediated hippocampal spinogenesis and memory consolidation depend on JNK and cofilin signaling, supporting a critical role for actin polymerization in the GPER-induced regulation of hippocampal function in female mice.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Emerging evidence suggests that G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) activation mimics effects of 17ß-estradiol on hippocampal memory consolidation. Unlike canonical estrogen receptors, GPER activation is associated with reduced cancer cell proliferation; thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms through which GPER regulates hippocampal function may provide new avenues for the development of drugs that provide the cognitive benefits of estrogens without harmful side effects. Here, we demonstrate that GPER increases CA1 dendritic spine density and hippocampal memory consolidation in a manner dependent on actin polymerization and c-Jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation. These findings provide novel insights into the role of GPER in mediating hippocampal morphology and memory consolidation, and may suggest first steps toward new therapeutics that more safely and effectively reduce memory decline in menopausal women.

Estradiol and hippocampal memory in female and male rodents.

Estrogens influence nearly every aspect of hippocampal function, including memory formation. Although this research has traditionally focused on ovariectomized females, more recent work is providing insights into the ways in which estrogens regulate hippocampal function in both sexes. This review provides an overview of estrogenic regulation of hippocampal function in female and male rodents, with a particular emphasis on memory formation. Where applicable, we discuss the involvement of specific estrogen receptors and molecular mechanisms that mediate these effects. The review concludes by suggesting gaps in the literature that need to be filled to provide greater insights into potential sex differences in the effects of estrogens on hippocampal function.

A-C Estrogens as Potent and Selective Estrogen Receptor-Beta Agonists (SERBAs) to Enhance Memory Consolidation under Low-Estrogen Conditions.

Estrogen receptor-beta (ERß) is a drug target for memory consolidation in postmenopausal women. Herein is reported a series of potent and selective ERß agonists (SERBAs) with in vivo efficacy that are A-C estrogens, lacking the B and D estrogen rings. The most potent and selective A-C estrogen is selective for activating ER relative to seven other nuclear hormone receptors, with a surprising 750-fold selectivity for the ß over α isoform and with EC50s of 20-30 nM in cell-based and direct binding assays. Comparison of potency in different assays suggests that the ER isoform selectivity is related to the compound's ability to drive the productive conformational change needed to activate transcription. The compound also shows in vivo efficacy after microinfusion into the dorsal hippocampus and after intraperitoneal injection (0.5 mg/kg) or oral gavage (0.5 mg/kg). This simple yet novel A-C estrogen is selective, brain penetrant, and facilitates memory consolidation.

Mechanisms underlying the rapid effects of estradiol and progesterone on hippocampal memory consolidation in female rodents.

Contribution to Special Issue on Fast effects of steroids. Although rapid effects of 17ß­estradiol (E2) and progesterone on cellular functions have been observed for several decades, a proliferation of data in recent years has demonstrated the importance of these actions to cognition. In particular, an emerging literature has demonstrated that these hormones promote the consolidation of spatial and object recognition memories in rodents via rapid activation of numerous cellular events including cell signaling, histone modifications, and local protein translation in the hippocampus. This article provides an overview of the evidence demonstrating that E2 and progesterone enhance hippocampal memory consolidation in female rodents, and then discusses numerous molecular mechanisms thus far shown to mediate the beneficial effects of these hormones on memory formation.

Estrogenic regulation of memory consolidation: A look beyond the hippocampus, ovaries, and females.

The potent estrogen 17ß-estradiol (E2) has long been known to regulate the hippocampus and hippocampal-dependent memories in females, and research from the past decade has begun to shed light on the molecular mechanisms through which E2 mediates memory formation in females. Although E2 can also regulate hippocampal function in males, relatively little is known about how E2 influences memory formation in males, or whether sex differences in underlying mechanisms exist. This review, based on a talk given in April 2017 at the American University symposium entitled, "Sex Differences: From Neuroscience to the Clinic and Beyond", first provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms in the dorsal hippocampus through which E2 enhances memory consolidation in ovariectomized female mice. Next, newer research is described demonstrating key roles for the prefrontal cortex and de novo hippocampal E2 synthesis to the memory-enhancing effects of E2 in females. The review then discusses the effects of de novo and exogenous E2 on hippocampal memory consolidation in both sexes, and putative sex differences in the underlying molecular mechanisms through which E2 enhances memory formation. The review concludes by discussing the importance and implications of sex differences in the molecular mechanisms underlying E2-induced memory consolidation for human health.

Distinct effects of estrogen receptor antagonism on object recognition and spatial memory consolidation in ovariectomized mice.

Exogenous treatment with the potent estrogen 17ß-estradiol (E2) or selective estrogen receptor α/ß (ERα/ß) agonists enhances the consolidation of hippocampal-dependent object recognition (OR) and object placement (OP) memories in ovariectomized rodents. Although such data suggest that individual ERs are sufficient for memory consolidation, the necessity of a given ER for memory consolidation can only be demonstrated by blocking receptor function, for example with an ER antagonist. However, the effects on memory of antagonizing ERα or ERß function are not well understood. Moreover, ER antagonism in ovariectomized subjects also provides indirect information about the role of individual ERs in the memory-enhancing effects of local hippocampal E2 synthesis. Therefore, this study used pharmacological inhibition of ERα and ERß to elucidate the importance of each ER to memory consolidation. Specifically, we examined effects on OR and OP memory consolidation of immediate post-training dorsal hippocampal (DH) infusion of MPP and PHTPP, selective antagonists for ERα and ERß, respectively. Each drug exhibited a distinct effect on OR and OP. DH infusion of MPP (0.28 or 2.78ng/hemisphere) impaired memory in OP, but not OR. However, DH infusion of PHTPP (0.21 or 2.12ng/hemisphere) impaired memory in both OR and OP. Neither drug affected the elapsed time to accumulate object exploration in either task, suggesting a specific effect on memory. These results indicate that activation of either classical ER within the dorsal hippocampus is important for hippocampal memory consolidation in ovariectomized mice, but suggest that specific ER involvement is memory- or task-specific. The findings also indirectly support a role for ERα and ERß in mediating the memory-enhancing effects of hippocampally-synthesized E2.

17ß-Estradiol and Agonism of G-protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor Enhance Hippocampal Memory via Different Cell-Signaling Mechanisms.

The ability of 17ß-estradiol (E2) to enhance hippocampal object recognition and spatial memory depends on rapid activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in the dorsal hippocampus (DH). Although this activation can be mediated by the intracellular estrogen receptors ERα and ERß, little is known about the role that the membrane estrogen receptor GPER plays in regulating ERK or E2-mediated memory formation. In this study, post-training DH infusion of the GPER agonist G-1 enhanced object recognition and spatial memory in ovariectomized female mice, whereas the GPER antagonist G-15 impaired memory, suggesting that GPER activation, like E2, promotes hippocampal memory formation. However, unlike E2, G-1 did not increase ERK phosphorylation, but instead significantly increased phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in the DH. Moreover, DH infusion of the JNK inhibitor SP600125 prevented G-1 from enhancing object recognition and spatial memory, but the ERK inhibitor U0126 did not. These data suggest that GPER enhances memory via different cell-signaling mechanisms than E2. This conclusion was supported by data showing that the ability of E2 to facilitate memory and activate ERK signaling was not blocked by G-15 or SP600125, which demonstrates that the memory-enhancing effects of E2 are not dependent on JNK or GPER activation in the DH. Together, these data indicate that GPER regulates memory independently from ERα and ERß by activating JNK signaling, rather than ERK signaling. Thus, the findings suggest that GPER in the DH may not function as an estrogen receptor to regulate object recognition and spatial memory. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Although 17ß-estradiol has long been known to regulate memory function, the molecular mechanisms underlying estrogenic memory modulation remain largely unknown. Here, we examined whether the putative membrane estrogen receptor GPER acts like the classical estrogen receptors, ERα and ERß, to facilitate hippocampal memory in female mice. Although GPER activation did enhance object recognition and spatial memory, it did so by activating different cell-signaling mechanisms from ERα, ERß, or 17ß-estradiol. These data indicate that 17ß-estradiol and GPER independently regulate hippocampal memory, and suggest that hippocampal GPER may not function as an estrogen receptor in the dorsal hippocampus. These findings are significant because they provide novel insights about the molecular mechanisms through which 17ß-estradiol modulates hippocampal memory.

Sex steroid hormones matter for learning and memory: estrogenic regulation of hippocampal function in male and female rodents.

Ample evidence has demonstrated that sex steroid hormones, such as the potent estrogen 17ß-estradiol (E2), affect hippocampal morphology, plasticity, and memory in male and female rodents. Yet relatively few investigators who work with male subjects consider the effects of these hormones on learning and memory. This review describes the effects of E2 on hippocampal spinogenesis, neurogenesis, physiology, and memory, with particular attention paid to the effects of E2 in male rodents. The estrogen receptors, cell-signaling pathways, and epigenetic processes necessary for E2 to enhance memory in female rodents are also discussed in detail. Finally, practical considerations for working with female rodents are described for those investigators thinking of adding females to their experimental designs.

Regulation of object recognition and object placement by ovarian sex steroid hormones.

The ovarian hormones 17ß-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) are potent modulators of hippocampal memory formation. Both hormones have been demonstrated to enhance hippocampal memory by regulating the cellular and molecular mechanisms thought to underlie memory formation. Behavioral neuroendocrinologists have increasingly used the object recognition and object placement (object location) tasks to investigate the role of E2 and P4 in regulating hippocampal memory formation in rodents. These one-trial learning tasks are ideal for studying acute effects of hormone treatments on different phases of memory because they can be administered during acquisition (pre-training), consolidation (post-training), or retrieval (pre-testing). This review synthesizes the rodent literature testing the effects of E2 and P4 on object recognition (OR) and object placement (OP), and the molecular mechanisms in the hippocampus supporting memory formation in these tasks. Some general trends emerge from the data. Among gonadally intact females, object memory tends to be best when E2 and P4 levels are elevated during the estrous cycle, pregnancy, and in middle age. In ovariectomized females, E2 given before or immediately after testing generally enhances OR and OP in young and middle-aged rats and mice, although effects are mixed in aged rodents. Effects of E2 treatment on OR and OP memory consolidation can be mediated by both classical estrogen receptors (ERα and ERß), and depend on glutamate receptors (NMDA, mGluR1) and activation of numerous cell signaling cascades (e.g., ERK, PI3K/Akt, mTOR) and epigenetic processes (e.g., histone acetylation, DNA methylation). Acute P4 treatment given immediately after training also enhances OR and OP in young and middle-aged ovariectomized females by activating similar cell signaling pathways as E2 (e.g., ERK, mTOR). The few studies that have administered both hormones in combination suggest that treatment can enhance OR and OP, but that effects are highly dependent on factors such as dose and timing of administration. In addition to providing more detail on these general conclusions, this review will discuss directions for future avenues of research into the hormonal regulation of object memory.

17ß-Estradiol regulates histone alterations associated with memory consolidation and increases Bdnf promoter acetylation in middle-aged female mice.

Histone acetylation is essential for hippocampal memory formation in young adult rodents. Although dysfunctional histone acetylation has been associated with age-related memory decline in male rodents, little is known about whether histone acetylation is altered by aging in female rodents. In young female mice, the ability of 17ß-estradiol (E2) to enhance object recognition memory consolidation requires histone H3 acetylation in the dorsal hippocampus. However, the extent to which histone acetylation is regulated by E2 in middle-aged females is unknown. The mnemonic benefits of E2 in aging females appear to be greatest in middle age, and so pinpointing the molecular mechanisms through which E2 enhances memory at this age could lead to the development of safer and more effective treatments for maintaining memory function without the side effects of current therapies. Here, we show that dorsal hippocampal infusion of E2 rapidly enhanced object recognition and spatial memory, and increased histone H3 acetylation in the dorsal hippocampus, while also significantly reducing levels of histone deacetylase (HDAC2 and HDAC3) proteins. E2 specifically increased histone H3 acetylation at Bdnf promoters pII and pIV in the dorsal hippocampus of both young and middle-aged mice, despite age-related decreases in pI and pIV acetylation. Furthermore, levels of mature BDNF and pro-BDNF proteins in the dorsal hippocampus were increased by E2 in middle-aged females. Together, these data suggest that the middle-aged female dorsal hippocampus remains epigenetically responsive to E2, and that E2 may enhance memory in middle-aged females via epigenetic regulation of Bdnf.

Cocoa phytochemicals: recent advances in molecular mechanisms on health.

Recent reports on cocoa are appealing in that a food commonly consumed for pure pleasure might also bring tangible benefits for human health. Cocoa consumption is correlated with reduced health risks of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and cancer, and the health-promoting effects of cocoa are mediated by cocoa-driven phytochemicals. Cocoa is rich in procyanidins, theobromine, (-)-epicatechin, catechins, and caffeine. Among the phytochemicals present in consumed cocoa, theobromine is most available in human plasma, followed by caffeine, (-)-epicatechin, catechin, and procyanidins. It has been reported that cocoa phytochemicals specifically modulate or interact with specific molecular targets linked to the pathogenesis of chronic human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, obesity, diabetes, and skin aging. This review summarizes comprehensive recent findings on the beneficial actions of cocoa-driven phytochemicals in molecular mechanisms of human health.

3,3'-Diindolylmethane inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial hyperactivation and attenuates brain inflammation.

Recent studies have revealed that microglial hyperactivation and neuroinflammation are implicated in development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we examined the beneficial effects of 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) and indole-3-carbinol (I3C), dietary components found in cruciferous vegetables, on brain inflammation. DIM, a major metabolite of I3C, suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in BV-2 microglia, but I3C did not. DIM, but not I3C, attenuated DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and phosphorylation of inhibitor of κB, suggesting that DIM might inhibit microglial hyperactivation by attenuating inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB. In addition, DIM, but not I3C, protected primary cortical neurons from inflammatory toxicity induced by the conditioned media from LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglia, indicating that DIM might attenuate microglial hyperactivation-mediated neuronal death. In an in vivo model of neuroinflammation, DIM suppressed LPS-induced brain inflammation in mouse hippocampus, as determined by the number of Iba-1-positive cells and the mRNA expression of F4/80. Taken together, these results suggest that DIM may have beneficial potential against brain inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases through the negative regulation of the NF-κB signal pathway in microglia.

Licorice-derived dehydroglyasperin C increases MKP-1 expression and suppresses inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration.

Recent studies have demonstrated that microglial hyperactivation-mediated neuroinflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, inhibiting microglial production of the neurotoxic mediator tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is considered a promising strategy to protect against neurodegeneration. Here, we investigated the inhibitory effect of licorice-derived dehydroglyasperin C (DGC) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced TNF-α production and inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration. We found that DGC pre-treatment attenuated TNF-α production in response to LPS stimulation of BV-2 microglia. DGC pre-treatment attenuated LPS-induced inhibitor of κB-α (IκB-α) and p65 phosphorylation and decreased the DNA binding activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). DGC pre-treatment also inhibited LPS-mediated phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Interestingly, DGC treatment of BV-2 microglia significantly increased MAPK phosphatase 1 (MKP-1) mRNA and protein expression, which is a phosphatase of p38 MAPK and ERK, suggesting that the DGC-mediated increase in MKP-1 expression might inhibit LPS-induced MAPKs and NF-κB activation and further TNF-α production. We also found that LPS-mediated microglial neurotoxicity can be attenuated by DGC. The addition of conditioned media (CM) from DGC- and LPS-treated microglia to neurons helped maintain healthy cell body and neurite morphology and increased the number of microtubule-associated protein 2-positive cells and the level of synaptophysin compared to treatment with CM from LPS-treated microglia. Taken together, these data suggest that DGC isolated from licorice may inhibit microglia hyperactivation by increasing MKP-1 expression and acting as a potent anti-neurodegenerative agent.

Caffeinated coffee, decaffeinated coffee, and the phenolic phytochemical chlorogenic acid up-regulate NQO1 expression and prevent H2O2-induced apoptosis in primary cortical neurons.

Neurodegenerative disorders are strongly associated with oxidative stress, which is induced by reactive oxygen species including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Epidemiological studies have suggested that coffee may be neuroprotective, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this effect have not been clarified. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of caffeinated coffee, decaffeinated coffee, and the phenolic phytochemical chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoylquinic acid), which is present in both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, against oxidative neuronal death. H2O2-induced apoptotic nuclear condensation in neuronal cells was strongly inhibited by pretreatment with caffeinated coffee, decaffeinated coffee, or chlorogenic acid. Pretreatment with caffeinated coffee, decaffeinated coffee, or chlorogenic acid inhibited the H2O2-induced down-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L) while blocking H2O2-induced pro-apoptotic cleavage of caspase-3 and pro-poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. We also found that caffeinated coffee, decaffeinated coffee, and chlorogenic acid induced the expression of NADPH:quinine oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in neuronal cells, suggesting that these substances protect neurons from H2O2-induced apoptosis by up-regulation of this antioxidant enzyme. The neuroprotective efficacy of caffeinated coffee was similar to that of decaffeinated coffee, indicating that active compounds present in both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, such as chlorogenic acid, may drive the effects.

Kaempferol attenuates 4-hydroxynonenal-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells by directly inhibiting NADPH oxidase.

Kaempferol, a natural flavonoid isolated from various plant sources, has been identified as a potential neuroprotectant. In this study, we investigated the protective effect of kaempferol against 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE)-induced apoptosis in PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells. Kaempferol inhibited 4-HNE-mediated apoptosis, characterized by nuclear condensation, down-regulation of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, and activation of proapoptotic caspase-3. Kaempferol inhibited 4-HNE-induced phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK). More importantly, kaempferol directly bound p47(phox), a cytosolic subunit of NADPH oxidase (NOX), and significantly inhibited 4-HNE-induced activation of NOX. The antiapoptotic effects of kaempferol were replicated by the NOX inhibitor apocynin, suggesting that NOX is an important enzyme in its effects. Our results suggest that kaempferol attenuates 4-HNE-induced activation of JNK and apoptosis by binding p47(phox) of NOX and potently inhibiting activation of the NOX-JNK signaling pathway in neuron-like cells. Altogether, these results suggest that kaempferol may be a potent prophylactic against NOX-mediated neurodegeneration.