Gradual Change Procedures in Behavior Analysis.

A wide variety of procedures within behavior analysis use gradual change in stimuli, response requirements, reinforcement, or some combination thereof, to effectively change behavior. Such procedures include shaping, thinning, fading, and chaining. Collectively, gradual change procedures represent a conceptually systematic technology of behavior change with wide-ranging empirical support across diverse settings and contexts. However, navigating the gradual change literature can be challenging. Similar terms are used to describe functionally distinct procedures (e.g., stimulus fading, delay fading, demand fading), and distinct terms are used to describe functionally similar procedures (e.g., leaning, demand fading). I propose a taxonomy in which gradual change procedures are categorized according to the functional component of the contingency on which they act. Three broad categories are proposed: Gradual Changes in Discriminative Stimuli, Response Requirement, and Reinforcement. I provide examples of research in each category, across basic and applied settings, including terminology used by the author(s) to describe each procedure. Finally, I discuss benefits of this framework for consumers of the literature.

Stimulus contributions to operant resurgence.

In two experiments, pigeons were exposed to a three-phase resurgence procedure (train Response A; extinguish Response A and train Response B; extinguish Response B). In the first experiment, the stimuli associated with phases were different, resulting in a resurgence procedure combined with an ABC renewal procedure. Presenting the novel stimulus, C, during extinction of both responses in the third phase resulted in minimal resurgence. Subsequently, substituting the original training Stimulus A for Stimulus C resulted in resurgence with all pigeons. In the second experiment, resurgence with the same stimuli present in all three phases of the resurgence procedure (AAA) was compared concurrently with a resurgence procedure in which the ABC renewal procedure used in Experiment 1 was superimposed. Substantially more resurgence occurred with the AAA procedure compared to the ABC procedure. Although ABC renewal in combination with the resurgence procedure generated some resurgence, such recurrent responding was attenuated relative to that observed when the stimulus conditions were constant across phases. Combined with earlier research showing the enhancing effects of combining resurgence and ABA renewal procedures, the present results elaborate on how stimuli correlated with certain behavioral histories affect the course of operant resurgence.

Beyond the breakpoint: reinstatement, renewal, and resurgence of ratio-strained behavior.

Three experiments were conducted using pigeons to assess the recurrence of responding eliminated by increasing the value of a progressive-ratio schedule to the breakpoint of responding. The procedures used in these assessments were, in successive experiments, reinstatement, renewal and resurgence. Each was effective in returning temporarily the eliminated responding. Reinstatement occurred with both yoked-time and fixed-time food deliveries. Both renewal and resurgence resulted in immediate recurrence of the response, and, as in other experiments investigating resurgence, the key peck response resurged as the alternative response extinguished. The results of all three experiments suggest the generality of these recurrence procedures to responding under progressive-ratio schedules, indicating that strained performance under these schedules is amenable to recovery under the investigated conditions.

On defining resurgence.

A review of different investigators' definitions of resurgence revealed several common features: First, characteristics of the resurgent, or target, response, such as its transience; magnitude; time course within and across sessions; and relativity to a baseline response rate are not mentioned. Second, the target response is described as being established through its reinforcement in the first, or Training, phase of a resurgence procedure. Third, the target response must be eliminated as an alternative response is reinforced in the second, Alternative Reinforcement, phase of a resurgence procedure. Fourth, the alternative response must be extinguished during the Resurgence Test phase. Fifth, none of the definitions allude to any contribution of stimulus variables to resurgence. When reconsidered in light of contemporary research germane to these features, none of the reviewed definitions sufficiently reflect important variables in the generation and assessment of resurgence. The review concludes with a proposed working definition that takes into account contemporary research involving all of the aforementioned factors.

Super-resurgence: ABA renewal increases resurgence.

Previously extinguished operant responding recurs under both resurgence and renewal procedures, but the effects of combining these procedures on recurrence has not been studied. Because renewal and resurgence are known to independently produce response recurrence, we examined whether greater resurgence would occur if the resurgence procedure was combined with an ABA renewal procedure, relative to a resurgence procedure without contextual changes. Three pigeons were exposed to a concurrent resurgence procedure in which key colors served as contextual stimuli. In the Training phase, reinforcement for pecking two keys was scheduled on concurrent variable-interval (VI) 120-s VI 120-s schedules, each correlated with different key colors. In the Alternative Reinforcement phase, reinforcement occurred when neither key was pecked for 20-s (a differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior [DRO] 20-s schedule). During this phase, one of the key colors was changed (ABA key), while the other key color remained as in the Training phase (AAA key). In the third phase, reinforcement was not provided and the color of the ABA key was changed back to the color in effect during the Training phase while the same color remained in effect on the other key. Greater resurgence occurred on the ABA renewal key with each pigeon, demonstrating that a superimposed ABA renewal procedure increases resurgence.