Extracellular adenosine controls NKT-cell-dependent hepatitis induction.

Extracellular adenosine regulates inflammatory responses via the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR). A2AR deficiency results in much exaggerated acute hepatitis, indicating nonredundancy of adenosine-A2AR pathway in inhibiting immune activation. To identify a critical target of immunoregulatory effect of extracellular adenosine, we focused on NKT cells, which play an indispensable role in hepatitis. An A2AR agonist abolished NKT-cell-dependent induction of acute hepatitis by concanavalin A (Con A) or α-galactosylceramide in mice, corresponding to downregulation of activation markers and cytokines in NKT cells and of NK-cell co-activation. These results show that A2AR signaling can downregulate NKT-cell activation and suppress NKT-cell-triggered inflammatory responses. Next, we hypothesized that NKT cells might be under physiological control of the adenosine-A2AR pathway. Indeed, both Con A and α-galactosylceramide induced more severe hepatitis in A2AR-deficient mice than in WT controls. Transfer of A2AR-deficient NKT cells into A2AR-expressing recipients resulted in exaggeration of Con A-induced liver damage, suggesting that NKT-cell activation is controlled by endogenous adenosine via A2AR, and this physiological regulatory mechanism of NKT cells is critical in the control of tissue-damaging inflammation. The current study suggests the possibility to manipulate NKT-cell activity in inflammatory disorders through intervention to the adenosine-A2AR pathway.

Hypoxia-induced and A2A adenosine receptor-independent T-cell suppression is short lived and easily reversible.

Tissue hypoxia plays a key role in establishing an immunosuppressive environment in vivo by, among other effects, increasing the level of extracellular adenosine, which then signals through A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR) to elicit its immunosuppressive effect. Although the important role of the adenosine--A2AR interaction in limiting inflammation has been established, the current study revisited this issue by asking whether hypoxia can also exert its T-cell inhibitory effects even without A2AR. A similar degree of hypoxia-triggered inhibition was observed in wild-type and A2AR-deficient T cells both in vitro and, after exposure of mice to a hypoxic atmosphere, in vivo. This A2AR-independent hypoxic T-cell suppression was qualitatively and mechanistically different from immunosuppression by A2AR stimulation. The A2AR-independent hypoxic immunosuppression strongly reduced T-cell proliferation, while IFN-γ-producing activity was more susceptible to the A2AR-dependent inhibition. In contrast to the sustained functional impairment after A2AR-mediated T-cell inhibition, the A2AR-independent inhibition under hypoxia was short lived, as evidenced by the quick recovery of IFN-γ-producing activity upon re-stimulation. These data support the view that T-cell inhibition by hypoxia can be mediated by multiple mechanisms and that both A2AR and key molecules in the A2AR-independent T-cell inhibition should be targeted to overcome the hypoxia-related immunosuppression in infected tissues and tumors.

Prenatal and Postnatal Epigenetic Programming: Implications for GI, Immune, and Neuronal Function in Autism.

Although autism is first and foremost a disorder of the central nervous system, comorbid dysfunction of the gastrointestinal (GI) and immune systems is common, suggesting that all three systems may be affected by common molecular mechanisms. Substantial systemic deficits in the antioxidant glutathione and its precursor, cysteine, have been documented in autism in association with oxidative stress and impaired methylation. DNA and histone methylation provide epigenetic regulation of gene expression during prenatal and postnatal development. Prenatal epigenetic programming (PrEP) can be affected by the maternal metabolic and nutritional environment, whereas postnatal epigenetic programming (PEP) importantly depends upon nutritional support provided through the GI tract. Cysteine absorption from the GI tract is a crucial determinant of antioxidant capacity, and systemic deficits of glutathione and cysteine in autism are likely to reflect impaired cysteine absorption. Excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3) provides cysteine uptake for GI epithelial, neuronal, and immune cells, and its activity is decreased during oxidative stress. Based upon these observations, we propose that neurodevelopmental, GI, and immune aspects of autism each reflect manifestations of inadequate antioxidant capacity, secondary to impaired cysteine uptake by the GI tract. Genetic and environmental factors that adversely affect antioxidant capacity can disrupt PrEP and/or PEP, increasing vulnerability to autism.

The development and immunosuppressive functions of CD4(+) CD25(+) FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells are under influence of the adenosine-A2A adenosine receptor pathway.

The A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR)-mediated immunosuppression is firmly implicated in the life-saving down-regulation of collateral tissue damage during the anti-pathogen immune response and in highly undesirable protection of cancerous tissues during anti-tumor immune response. Therefore, depending on specific clinical situation there is a need to either weaken or strengthen the intensity of A2AR signal. While the A2AR-mediated immunosuppression was shown to be T cell autonomous in studies of effector T cells, it was not clear how A2AR stimulation affects regulatory T cells (Treg). Here we show in parallel assays that while A2AR stimulation on T cells directly inhibits their activation, there is also indirect and longer-lasting T cell inhibitory effect through modulation of Treg. A2AR stimulation expanded CD4(+) CD25(hi) FoxP3(+) cells, which also express CD39, CD73, and CTLA-4. Treg cultured with A2AR agonist showed increased expression of CTLA-4 and stronger immunosuppressive activity. There was a significant increase of Treg cell number after A2AR stimulation. The CD4(+) FoxP3(+) population contained those induced from CD4(+) CD25(-) cells, but CD4(+) FoxP3(+) cells predominantly derived from CD4(+) CD25(+) natural Treg. Thus, A2AR stimulation numerically and functionally enhanced Treg-mediated immunosuppressive mechanism. These data suggest that the A2AR-mediated stimulation of lymphocytes using A2AR agonists should be considered in protocols for ex vivo expansion of Treg before the transfer to patients in different medical applications.

In vivo T cell activation in lymphoid tissues is inhibited in the oxygen-poor microenvironment.

Activation of immune cells is under control of immunological and physiological regulatory mechanisms to ensure adequate destruction of pathogens with the minimum collateral damage to "innocent" bystander cells. The concept of physiological negative regulation of immune response has been advocated based on the finding of the critical immunoregulatory role of extracellular adenosine. Local tissue oxygen tension was proposed to function as one of such physiological regulatory mechanisms of immune responses. In the current study, we utilized in vivo marker of local tissue hypoxia pimonidazole hydrochloride (Hypoxyprobe-1) in the flowcytometric analysis of oxygen levels to which lymphocytes are exposed in vivo. The level of exposure to hypoxia in vivo was low in B cells and the levels increased in the following order: T cells < NKT cells < NK cells. The thymus was more hypoxic than the spleen and lymph nodes, suggesting the variation in the degree of oxygenation among lymphoid organs and cell types in normal mice. Based on in vitro studies, tissue hypoxia has been assumed to be suppressive to T cell activation in vivo, but there was no direct evidence demonstrating that T cells exposed to hypoxic environment in vivo are less activated. We tested whether the state of activation of T cells in vivo changes due to their exposure to hypoxic tissue microenvironments. The parallel analysis of more hypoxic and less hypoxic T cells in the same mouse revealed that the degree of T cell activation was significantly stronger in better-oxygenated T cells. These observations suggest that the extent of T cell activation in vivo is dependent on their localization and is decreased in environment with low oxygen tension.

A2A adenosine receptor may allow expansion of T cells lacking effector functions in extracellular adenosine-rich microenvironments.

Immunosuppressive signaling via the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR) provokes a mechanism that protects inflamed tissues from excessive damage by immune cells. This mechanism is desirable not only for preventing uncontrolled tissue destruction by overactive immune responses, but also for protecting tumor tissues from antitumor immune responses. In aforementioned circumstances, T cell priming may occur in an environment containing high concentrations of extracellular adenosine. To examine qualitative changes in T cells activated in the presence of adenosine, we asked whether different functional responses of T cells are equally susceptible to A2AR agonists. In this study, we demonstrate that A2AR signaling during T cell activation strongly inhibited development of cytotoxicity and cytokine-producing activity in T cells, whereas the inhibition of T cell proliferation was only marginal. Both CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells proliferated well in the presence of A2AR agonists, but their IFN-gamma-producing activities were susceptible to inhibition by cAMP-elevating A2AR. Importantly, the impaired effector functions were maintained in T cells even after removal of the A2AR agonist, reflecting T cell memory of the immunoregulatory effect of adenosine. Thus, although the adenosine-rich environment may allow for the expansion of T cells, the functional activation of T cells may be critically impaired. This physiological mechanism could explain the inefficiency of antitumor T cells in the tumor microenvironment.