The COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences for chronic pain: a narrative review.

The COVID-19 pandemic transformed everyday life, but the implications were most impactful for vulnerable populations, including patients with chronic pain. Moreover, persistent pain is increasingly recognised as a key manifestation of long COVID. This narrative review explores the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for chronic pain. Publications were identified related to the COVID-19 pandemic influence on the burden of chronic pain, development of new-onset pain because of long COVID with proposed mechanisms and COVID-19 vaccines and pain interventions. Broadly, mechanisms underlying pain due to SARS-CoV-2 infection could be caused by 'systemic inflammatory-immune mechanisms', 'direct neuropathic mechanisms' or 'secondary mechanisms due to the viral infection or treatment'. Existing chronic pain populations were variably impacted and social determinants of health appeared to influence the degree of effect. SARS-CoV-2 infection increased the absolute numbers of patients with pain and headache. In the acute phase, headache as a presenting symptom predicted a milder course. New-onset chronic pain was reportedly common and likely involves multiple mechanisms; however, its prevalence decreases over time and symptoms appear to fluctuate. Patients requiring intensive support were particularly susceptible to long COVID symptoms. Some evidence suggests steroid exposure (often used for pain interventions) may affect vaccine efficacy, but there is no evidence of clinical repercussions to date. Although existing chronic pain management could help with symptomatic relief, there is a need to advance research focusing on mechanism-based treatments within the domain of multidisciplinary care.

Out of pocket costs and time/productivity losses for pediatric sepsis in Uganda: a mixed-methods study.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis disproportionately affects children from socioeconomically disadvantaged families in low-resource settings, where care seeking may consume scarce family resources and lead to financial hardships. Those financial hardships may, in turn, contribute to late presentation or failure to seek care and result in high mortality during hospitalization and during the post discharge period, a period of increasingly recognized vulnerability. The purpose of this study is to explore the out-of-pocket costs related to sepsis hospitalizations and post-discharge care among children admitted with sepsis in Uganda. METHODS: This mixed-methods study was comprised of focus group discussions (FGD) with caregivers of children admitted for sepsis, which then informed a quantitative cross-sectional household survey to measure out-of-pocket costs of sepsis care both during initial admission and during the post-discharge period. All participants were families of children enrolled in a concurrent sepsis study. RESULTS: Three FGD with mothers (n = 20) and one FGD with fathers (n = 7) were conducted. Three primary themes that emerged included (1) financial losses, (2) time and productivity losses and (3) coping with costs. A subsequently developed cross-sectional survey was completed for 153 households of children discharged following admission for sepsis. The survey revealed a high cost of care for families attending both private and public facilities, although out-of-pocket cost were higher at private facilities. Half of those surveyed reported loss of income during hospitalization and a third sold household assets, most often livestock, to cover costs. Total mean out-of-pocket costs of hospital care and post-discharge care were 124.50 USD and 44.60 USD respectively for those seeking initial care at private facilities and 62.10 USD and 14.60 USD at public facilities, a high sum in a country with widespread poverty. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals that families incur a substantial economic burden in accessing care for children with sepsis.

Development of the FAST-M maternal sepsis bundle for use in low-resource settings: a modified Delphi process.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a sepsis care bundle for the initial management of maternal sepsis in low resource settings. DESIGN: Modified Delphi process. SETTING: Participants from 34 countries. POPULATION: Healthcare practitioners working in low resource settings (n = 143; 34 countries), members of an expert panel (n = 11) and consultation with the World Health Organization Global Maternal and Neonatal Sepsis Initiative technical working group. METHODS: We reviewed the literature to identify all potential interventions and practices around the initial management of sepsis that could be bundled together. A modified Delphi process, using an online questionnaire and in-person meetings, was then undertaken to gain consensus on bundle items. Participants ranked potential bundle items in terms of perceived importance and feasibility, considering their use in both hospitals and health centres. Findings from the healthcare practitioners were then triangulated with those of the experts. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Consensus on bundle items. RESULTS: Consensus was reached after three consultation rounds, with the same items deemed most important and feasible by both the healthcare practitioners and expert panel. Final bundle items selected were: (1) Fluids, (2) Antibiotics, (3) Source identification and control, (4) Transfer (to appropriate higher-level care) and (5) Monitoring (of both mother and neonate as appropriate). The bundle was given the acronym 'FAST-M'. CONCLUSION: A clinically relevant maternal sepsis bundle for low resource settings has been developed by international consensus. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: A maternal sepsis bundle for low resource settings has been developed by international consensus.

Burden of Paediatric Sepsis in a Tertiary Centre from a Developing Country / Carga de sepsis pediátrica en un centro terciario de un país en desarrollo

ABSTRACT Background: Sepsis causes significant paediatric morbidity and mortality in developing countries. This paper describes the outcome of paediatric sepsis in the University Hospital of the West Indies (UHWI), Jamaica, using administrative data from hospital records from 2010 to 2014. Objective: To provide baseline data on the burden and outcome of paediatric sepsis in a tertiary institution in Jamaica between 2010 and 2014 so as to embark on initiatives to build capacity to provide care in order to decrease the burden and improve the outcomes from sepsis in children. Methods: Data were abstracted from electronic discharge summaries of children hospitalized at the UHWI, a tertiary centre that accepts referrals for newborns and children with complex disorders. The medical records of children aged 0-16 years who were hospitalized with a diagnosis of sepsis, septicaemia and neonatal sepsis were reviewed, using the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10). Demographic and outcome data were extracted. Results: Among 7011 children aged 0-16 years who were admitted, sepsis accounted for 801 hospitalizations in 782 children with a male to female ratio of 1.27 to 1. Neonates comprised 86% (n = 691), of which 36.2% (n = 250) were preterm. The median duration of hospitalization was 10 days (range: 0-366 days; interquartile range: 7-19 days). The sepsis-attributable mortality rate was 10.1% (n = 70) in neonates and was higher in preterm versus term neonates (18.4%, n = 46/250 versus 6.0%, n = 26/434, respectively). The annual crude mortality rate for paediatric sepsis was 9-11% (12 per 1000 paediatric hospitalizations). Conclusion: Sepsis accounted for a high number of admissions and consumed significant resources as evidenced by the long duration of hospitalization. The mortality rate for paediatric sepsis was high, especially in newborns. Targeted interventions are needed to reduce the sepsis-attributable burden and improve outcomes established by the Global Sepsis Alliance and United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.

RESUMEN Anteceentes: La sepsis causa morbilidad y mortalidad pediátricas significativas en los países en desarrollo. Este artículo describe el resultado de la sepsis pediátrica en el Hospital Universitario de West Indies (HUWI), Jamaica, utilizando datos administrativos de registros hospitalarios de 2010 a 2014. Objetivo: Proporcionar datos de referencia sobre la carga y el resultado de la sepsis pediátrica en una institución terciaria en Jamaica entre 2010 y 2014, a fin de emprender iniciativas para aumentar la capacidad de prestar atención a disminuir la carga y mejorar los resultados de la sepsis en los niños. Métodos: Se obtuvieron datos de resúmenes de descargas electrónicas de niños hospitalizados en el HUWI, un centro terciario que acepta remisiones de recién nacidos y niños con trastornos complejos. Se realizó una revisión de las historias clínicas de niños de 0 a 16 años de edad que fueron hospitalizados con un diagnóstico de sepsis, septicemia y sepsis neonatal, utilizando la Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, 10th Revisión (ICD-10). Se obtuvieron datos en relación con la demografía y los resultados clínicos. Resultados: Entre los 7011 niños de 0 a 16 años de edad que fueron ingresados, la sepsis fue la causa de 801 hospitalizaciones en 782 niños, en una proporción varón-mujer de 1.27 a 1. Los neonatos abarcaron el 86% (n = 691), el 36.2% de los cuales (n = 250) eran prematuros. La duración promedio de la hospitalización fue de 10 días (rango: 0-366 días; rango intercuartil: 7-19 días). La tasa de mortalidad atribuible a la sepsis fue de 10.1% (n = 70) en los neonatos, y fue mayor entre los prematuros en comparación con los neonatos a término (18.4%, n = 46/250 frente a 6.0%, n = 26/434, respectivamente). La tasa de mortalidad bruta anual para la sepsis pediátrica fue de 9 a 11% (12 por cada 1000 hospitalizaciones pediátricas). Conclusión: La sepsis representó un elevado número de ingresos y consumió recursos significativos como se evidenció en la larga duración de la hospitalización. La tasa de mortalidad por sepsis pediátrica fue alta, especialmente en recién nacidos. Se necesitan intervenciones específicas para reducir la carga atribuible a la sepsis y mejorar los resultados establecidos por la Alianza Mundial contra la Sepsis y los Objetivos del Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas.

Postdischarge mortality in children with acute infectious diseases: derivation of postdischarge mortality prediction models.

OBJECTIVES: To derive a model of paediatric postdischarge mortality following acute infectious illness. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: 2 hospitals in South-western Uganda. PARTICIPANTS: 1307 children of 6 months to 5 years of age were admitted with a proven or suspected infection. 1242 children were discharged alive and followed up 6 months following discharge. The 6-month follow-up rate was 98.3%. INTERVENTIONS: None. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was postdischarge mortality within 6 months following the initial hospital discharge. RESULTS: 64 children died during admission (5.0%) and 61 died within 6 months of discharge (4.9%). Of those who died following discharge, 31 (51%) occurred within the first 30 days. The final adjusted model for the prediction of postdischarge mortality included the variables mid-upper arm circumference (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.94 to 0.97, per 1 mm increase), time since last hospitalisation (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.93, for each increased period of no hospitalisation), oxygen saturation (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.93 to 0·99, per 1% increase), abnormal Blantyre Coma Scale score (OR 2.39, 95% CI 1·18 to 4.83), and HIV-positive status (OR 2.98, 95% CI 1.36 to 6.53). This model produced a receiver operating characteristic curve with an area under the curve of 0.82. With sensitivity of 80%, our model had a specificity of 66%. Approximately 35% of children would be identified as high risk (11.1% mortality risk) and the remaining would be classified as low risk (1.4% mortality risk), in a similar cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality following discharge is a poorly recognised contributor to child mortality. Identification of at-risk children is critical in developing postdischarge interventions. A simple prediction tool that uses 5 easily collected variables can be used to identify children at high risk of death after discharge. Improved discharge planning and care could be provided for high-risk children.

Insulin Control of Blood Glucose and GLUT4 Expression in the Skeletal Muscle of Septic Rats.

BACKGROUND: Insulin resistance is common in septic patients. The level at which the serum glucose should be maintained using insulin infusions for optimal utilization by skeletal muscles is not yet established. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study was to compare glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) mRNA and GLUT4 expression and glucose utilization at the recommended glucose levels of 6-8 mmol/L (110-140 mg/dL) and 8-10 mmol/L (140-180 mg/dL) in septic rats. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: This was a prospective randomized study using 44 Sprague-Dawley rats (260-330 g). Rats were anaesthetized with gaseous diethyl ether. Catheters were implanted into the jugular vein and artery. Following a laparotomy, rats in the experimental group (n = 36) were rendered septic by standard caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) infusion (O111:[B4], 1 mg/kg). Control animals (n = 8) underwent laparotomy, but no caecal ligation or puncture and no LPS injection. Four experimental groups were studied: sham-operated control, sepsis treated with fluid maintenance only, sepsis treated with fluid and insulin infusion controlling blood glucose concentration at 6-8 mmol/L and sepsis treated with fluid and insulin infusion controlling blood glucose concentration at 8-10 mmol/L. Hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp experiment was done before fluid maintenance and insulin treatment to calculate average glucose infusion rate. RESULTS: All septic rats were markedly hyperglycaemic compared with sham-operated controls two hours after operation. Glucose infusion rate during hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp experiment was slower in septic rats, suggesting that they were insulin resistant. At the 12th and 24th hour, skeletal muscle was taken to observe pathological change and analyse the GLUT4 mRNA and GLUT4 levels. There were more inflammatory cells, less GLUT4 mRNA and GLUT4 expression in the skeletal muscles of septic rats. Insulin increased the expression of GLUT4 mRNA and GLUT4 in the skeletal muscle of septic rats. Among all septic rats, the expression of GLUT4 mRNA and GLUT4 was more in the 8-10 mmol/L group. CONCLUSION: Blood glucose concentration of 8-10 mmol/L results in more glucose utilization than 6-8 mmol/L in the skeletal muscle of septic rats during insulin therapy.

Systems for Paediatric Sepsis: A Global Survey.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the resources available for early diagnosis and treatment of paediatric sepsis at hospitals in developing and developed countries. METHODS: This was a voluntary online survey involving 101 hospitals from 41 countries solicited through the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies contact list and website. The survey was designed to assess the spectrum of sepsis epidemiology, patterns of applied therapies, availability of resources and barriers to optimal sepsis treatment. RESULTS: Ninety per cent of respondents represented a tertiary or general hospital with paediatric intensive care facilities, including 63% from developed countries. Adequate triage services were absent in more than 20% of centres. Insufficiently trained personnel and lack of a sepsis protocol was reported in 40% of all sites. While there were specific guidelines for sepsis management in 78% of centres (n = 100), protocols for assessing sepsis patients were not applied in nearly 70% of centres. Lack of parental recognition of sepsis and failure of referring centres to diagnose sepsis were identified as major barriers by more than 50% of respondents. CONCLUSIONS: Even among centres with no significant resource constraints and advanced medical systems, significant deficits in sepsis care exist. Early recognition and management remain a key issue and may be addressed through improved triage, augmented support for referring centres and public awareness. Focussed research is necessary at the institutional level to identify and address specific barriers.

Continuous central venous oxygen saturation monitoring under varying physiological conditions in an animal model.

We compared saturations from a paediatric central venous oximetry catheter with co-oximetry values with changes in drug infusions, intravascular blood volume and hypoxia in an animal model. Piglets (large white) were anaesthetised, intubated and mechanically ventilated. PediaSat oximetry catheters were placed in the superior vena cava via jugular vein cut-down and in the inferior vena cava percutaneously via the femoral vein. A carotid arterial catheter was placed via cut-down for blood sampling and pressure monitoring. Anaesthesia was maintained with continuous thiopentone and supplemental morphine. Haemodynamics (heart rate, mean arterial blood, central venous pressure), fibreoptic ScvO2 (ScvO2-inferior) from inferior vena cava, fibreoptic ScvO2 (ScvO2-superior) from superior vena cava and blood gas oximetry (ScvO2-co-ox) were measured simultaneously at predetermined intervals during increasing adrenaline and sodium nitroprusside infusions and during increasing hypoxia and hypovolaemia. There was good agreement of both superior vena cava and inferior vena cava ScvO2 catheters with co-oximetry during adrenaline and sodium nitroprusside infusions. During the hypoxia study there was good agreement between the co-oximeter to ScvO2-superior catheter but poor agreement with to the inferior vena cava catheter samples. In the hypovolaemic phase of the experiment there was good agreement between the measured co-oximetry value and ScvO2-superior catheter until the mean blood pressure reached 43 mmHg. The oximetry catheter is capable of identifying changes in ScvO2 under physiological conditions usually encountered in clinical medicine but was less accurate at the extremes of physiology and when placed in the inferior vena cava catheter especially during hypovolaemia and hypoxia.

The optimal organization of pediatric emergency services.

The care for the acutely ill and injured child has undergone marked improvements in the last two decades. In the developed world children are receiving better care in the prehospital setting and in the emergency department (ED). Current evidence suggests that effective communication, collaboration with other areas in the hospital and improved turnaround time are essential for improved outcome for the very sick child. A better understanding of the ED model and appreciation of factors contributing to its input, throughput and output informed policy makers of the reasons for overcrowding and informed solutions. Systematic triage of patients, utilization of fast-track areas within the ED, bed-side registration and nurse-initiated protocols, have all been suggested as promising tools to overcome overcrowding.

Management of shock in children in the emergency department.

Early recognition of shock is the key to successful resuscitation in critically ill children. Often, shock results in or co-exists with myo-cardial dysfunction or acute lung injury. Recognition and appropriate management of these insults is crucial for successful outcomes. Resuscitation should be directed to restoration of tissue perfusion and normalization of cardiac and respiratory function. The underlying cause of shock should also be addressed urgently. The physiological response of individual children to shock resuscitation varies and is often variable and unpredictable. Therefore, repeated assessments with continuous, non-invasive monitoring are needed for taking appropriate decisions in the ED. Although global indices of tissue oxygen delivery such as the mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO(2)) help in targeting therapies more accurately, it is often unavailable in emergency settings. Isotonic fluids form the cornerstone of treatment and the amount required for resuscitation is based on etiologies and therapeutic response. After resuscitation has been initiated, targeted history and clinical evaluation must be performed to ascertain the cause of shock. Management of co-morbidities such as asthma and seizures should be implemented simultaneously. Inotropes, respiratory support, antibiotics and steroids may also be needed during the management of shock. While the management of shock can be protocol based, the treatment needs to be individualized depending on the suspected etiology and therapeutic response.

Health Human Resource planning in Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean States a matter of sustainability / Planificación de los Recursos Humanos en Salud en Barbados y los estados del Caribe Oriental un problema de sostenibilidad

Health and Human Resources (HHR) are very important issues to be considered in healthcare services. While various factors may be of greater significance in one area depending on resources, priorities and stage of economic development, a robust HHR plan is important in all cases. There are many factors such as demographic shifts, changing delivery models, consumer expectations, global shortages and financial restraints that must be considered in proper HHR planning. This manuscript summarizes some of the factors that should be considered and some of the short comings of current HHR planning approaches. Based on our review and experience, we developed a framework for HHR planning and apply the framework to Barbados to try to identify the existing challenges and issues and potential areas for staff and training investments.

Los recursos humanos en salud (RHS) constituyen asuntos importantes a considerar en relación con los servicios de atención a la salud. Si bien existen diversos factores que pueden poseer mayor importancia en un área en particular - en dependencia de los recursos, las prioridades y la etapa de desarrollo económico - un plan de RHS sólido es importante en todos los casos. Existen muchos factores tales como los cambios demográficos, los modelos de entrega cambiantes, las expectativas del consumidor, las escaseces a nivel global, y las limitaciones financieras a tener en cuenta a la hora de una planificación adecuada de RHS. El presente trabajo resume alguno de los factores que deben tomarse en cuenta y algunas de las deficiencias en los enfoques actuales en la planificación de RHS. A partir de nuestra revisión y experiencia, desarrollamos un esquema para la planificación de RHS. Aplicamos el esquema en Barbados en un intento por identificar los desafíos y problemas existentes, así como las áreas potenciales para inversiones en personal y entrenamiento.

Abdominal compartment syndrome complicating paediatric extracorporeal life support: diagnostic and therapeutic challenges.

We report three paediatric cases, and summarise the reported experience in two others, with cardiorespiratory failure requiring extracorporeal life support for which supportive pump flows could not be maintained due to abdominal compartment syndrome. In two of our patients, the mechanism of abdominal compartment syndrome was massive intra-abdominal fluid extravasation secondary to sepsis, while in the third, the mechanism was post-traumatic intra-abdominal haemorrhage. Although all three children eventually died, decompressive laparotomy and arrest of haemorrhage in the trauma patient restored venous return and enabled technically adequate extracorporeal life support. In two previously reported cases of sepsis with massive fluid resuscitation resulting in abdominal compartment syndrome, one patient died without attempted decompression, while the other patient survived after peritoneal catheter placement restored venous return. Once correctable causes of inadequate venous cannula drainage have been excluded, abdominal compartment syndrome should be considered in any patient on extracorporeal life support with a taut abdomen and reduced venous return. If abdominal compartment syndrome can be proven or is strongly suspected, there may be a role for selective decompressive laparotomy.

Noninvasive ventilation in infants and children.

Noninvasive ventilation provides respiratory support without airway invasion. It is defined by interface between the ventilator and the patient rather than any specific technique. It has the advantage for allowing the patients a greater degree of autonomy, control and comfort in that they can talk, eat and drink while receiving ventilatory support. There is also a trend of less need for sedation. In addition, nosocomial ventilator associated infections may be diminished. Noninvasive ventilation has been used in the management of adults with acute respiratory failure for decades, however it is only in the last few years that the benefits in children had been recognized and accepted. Technical difficulties with noninvasive ventilation in children such as poor mask fitting, inadequate ventilation because of leaks, and eye irritation and nasal dryness due to high flow have been recognized and are being addressed to varying degrees. Recent attention to mask, helmet and strapping device designs, and proper positioning have improved patient compliance and acceptance. However even with these modifications, the use of noninvasive ventilation is limited in patients with congenital facial anomalies which preclude a tight fitting mask. It is also difficult to apply in conditions when there is a potential infection such as facial trauma or burns. In this manuscript, the authors discuss the role of noninvasive ventilation in infants and children.

Health human resource planning in Barbados and the eastern Caribbean states: a matter of sustainability.

Health and Human Resources (HHR) are very important issues to be considered in healthcare services. While various factors may be of greater significance in one area depending on resources, priorities and stage of economic development, a robust HHR plan is important in all cases. There are many factors such as demographic shifts, changing delivery models, consumer expectations, global shortages and financial restraints that must be considered in proper HHR planning. This manuscript summarizes some of the factors that should be considered and some of the short comings of current HHR planning approaches. Based on our review and experience, we developed a framework for HHR planning and apply the framework to Barbados to try to identify the existing challenges and issues and potential areas for staff and training investments.

Adjunct pharmacotherapy in acute lung disease in children.

Mechanical ventilation, while accepted as standard therapy for critically ill infants and children with respiratory failure, has significant morbidity and mortality. While recent emphasis on low tidal volume ventilation and low airway pressures may result in decreased lung stretch and limit lung disease, adjunctive therapies have been tried to reduce the stressors of mechanical ventilation. Therapies included inhaled nitric oxide, heliox and surfactant. There are compelling physiological reasons why these drugs may be of benefit in these patients. However, our understanding of their role is hindered by studies with small numbers of patients and its use in diseases with varied pulmonary pathology. Studies have shown potential for benefit of inhaled nitric oxide in newborns with hypoxemic respiratory failure and pulmonary hypertension, surfactant in respiratory distress syndrome in preterm neonates and heliox in severe upper airway obstruction. However, the use in other respiratory conditions has led to mixed results and hence paucity of firm recommendations.