Mitochondrial roles of the psychiatric disease risk factor DISC1.

Ion transport during neuronal signalling utilizes the majority of the brain's energy supply. Mitochondria are key sites for energy provision through ATP synthesis and play other important roles including calcium buffering. Thus, tightly regulated distribution and function of these organelles throughout the intricate architecture of the neuron is essential for normal synaptic communication. Therefore, delineating mechanisms coordinating mitochondrial transport and function is essential for understanding nervous system physiology and pathology. While aberrant mitochondrial transport and dynamics have long been associated with neurodegenerative disease, they have also more recently been linked to major mental illness including schizophrenia, autism and depression. However, the underlying mechanisms have yet to be elucidated, due to an incomplete understanding of the combinations of genetic and environmental factors contributing to these conditions. Consequently, the DISC1 gene has undergone intense study since its discovery at the site of a balanced chromosomal translocation, segregating with mental illness in a Scottish pedigree. The precise molecular functions of DISC1 remain elusive. Reported functions of DISC1 include regulation of intracellular signalling pathways, neuronal migration and dendritic development. Intriguingly, a role for DISC1 in mitochondrial homeostasis and transport is fast emerging. Therefore, a major function of DISC1 in regulating mitochondrial distribution, ATP synthesis and calcium buffering may be disrupted in psychiatric disease. In this review, we discuss the links between DISC1 and mitochondria, considering both trafficking of these organelles and their function, and how, via these processes, DISC1 may contribute to the regulation of neuronal behavior in normal and psychiatric disease states.

DISC1 is a coordinator of intracellular trafficking to shape neuronal development and connectivity.

The long, asymmetric and specialised architecture of neuronal processes necessitates a properly regulated transport network of molecular motors and cytoskeletal tracks. This allows appropriate distribution of cargo for correct formation and activity of the synapse, and thus normal neuronal communication. This communication is impaired in psychiatric disease, and ongoing studies have proposed that Disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) is an important genetic risk factor for these disorders. The mechanisms by which DISC1 dysfunction might increase propensity to psychiatric disease are not completely understood; however, an emerging theme is that DISC1 can function as a key regulator of neuronal intracellular trafficking. Transport of a wide range of potential cargoes - including mRNAs, neurotransmitter receptors, vesicles and mitochondria - can be modulated by DISC1, and therefore is susceptible to DISC1 dysfunction. This theme highlights the importance of understanding precisely how DISC1 can regulate intracellular trafficking, and suggests that a novel approach to the treatment of psychiatric disorders could be provided by targeting this protein and the trafficking machinery with which it interacts.

Chromosome number and ploidy level of balm (Melissa officinalis).

BACKGROUND: Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) is of increasing importance resulting in rising growth area. Improved knowledge on the genome structure, number of chromosomes in connection with the taxonomical structure of balm is indispensable for improved new varieties. RESULTS: A collection of 40 balm accessions (M. officinalis) was characterized by flow cytometry and FISH (18/25S and 5S rDNA) to determine the chromosome number and ploidy level. Three different types were found: diploid genotypes with 2n = 2× = 32 chromosomes; tetraploid 2n = 4× = 64 chromosomes and triploid 2n = 3× = 48 chromosomes. A haploid base number of × = 16 chromosomes is likely. First time described triploid accessions are sterile but cytologically and morphologically stable for many years. Triploids express better winter hardiness and regeneration after harvesting cuts as well as bigger leaves and internodes. CONCLUSIONS: A basic chromosome number of x = 16 is reported for the first time for the species M. officinalis.

The autism and schizophrenia associated gene CYFIP1 is critical for the maintenance of dendritic complexity and the stabilization of mature spines.

Copy number variation (CNV) at the 15q11.2 region has been identified as a significant risk locus for neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the individual roles for genes at this locus in nervous system development, function and connectivity remain poorly understood. Haploinsufficiency of one gene in this region, Cyfip1, may provide a model for 15q11.2 CNV-associated neuropsychiatric phenotypes. Here we show that altering CYFIP1 expression levels in neurons both in vitro and in vivo influences dendritic complexity, spine morphology, spine actin dynamics and synaptic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor lateral diffusion. CYFIP1 is highly enriched at synapses and its overexpression in vitro leads to increased dendritic complexity. Neurons derived from Cyfip1 heterozygous animals on the other hand, possess reduced dendritic complexity, increased mobile F-actin and enhanced GluA2-containing AMPA receptor mobility at synapses. Interestingly, Cyfip1 overexpression or haploinsufficiency increased immature spine number, whereas activity-dependent changes in spine volume were occluded in Cyfip1 haploinsufficient neurons. In vivo, Cyfip1 heterozygous animals exhibited deficits in dendritic complexity as well as an altered ratio of immature-to-mature spines in hippocampal CA1 neurons. In summary, we provide evidence that dysregulation of CYFIP1 expression levels leads to pathological changes in CNS maturation and neuronal connectivity, both of which may contribute to the development of the neurological symptoms seen in ASD and SCZ.

A Unified Framework for Biometric Expert Fusion Incorporating Quality Measures.

This paper proposes a unified framework for quality-based fusion of multimodal biometrics. Quality-dependent fusion algorithms aim to dynamically combine several classifier (biometric expert) outputs as a function of automatically derived (biometric) sample quality. Quality measures used for this purpose quantify the degree of conformance of biometric samples to some predefined criteria known to influence the system performance. Designing a fusion classifier to take quality into consideration is difficult because quality measures cannot be used to distinguish genuine users from impostors, i.e., they are nondiscriminative yet still useful for classification. We propose a general Bayesian framework that can utilize the quality information effectively. We show that this framework encompasses several recently proposed quality-based fusion algorithms in the literature--Nandakumar et al., 2006; Poh et al., 2007; Kryszczuk and Drygajo, 2007; Kittler et al., 2007; Alonso-Fernandez, 2008; Maurer and Baker, 2007; Poh et al., 2010. Furthermore, thanks to the systematic study concluded herein, we also develop two alternative formulations of the problem, leading to more efficient implementation (with fewer parameters) and achieving performance comparable to, or better than, the state of the art. Last but not least, the framework also improves the understanding of the role of quality in multiple classifier combination.

Feature-based affine-Invariant localization of faces.

We present a novel method for localizing faces in person identification scenarios. Such scenarios involve high resolution images of frontal faces. The proposed algorithm does not require color, copes well in cluttered backgrounds, and accurately localizes faces including eye centers. An extensive analysis and a performance evaluation on the XM2VTS database and on the realistic BioID and BANCA face databases is presented. We show that the algorithm has precision superior to reference methods.

Locally linear discriminant analysis for multimodally distributed classes for face recognition with a single model image.

We present a novel method of nonlinear discriminant analysis involving a set of locally linear transformations called "Locally Linear Discriminant Analysis (LLDA)." The underlying idea is that global nonlinear data structures are locally linear and local structures can be linearly aligned. Input vectors are projected into each local feature space by linear transformations found to yield locally linearly transformed classes that maximize the between-class covariance while minimizing the within-class covariance. In face recognition, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) has been widely adopted owing to its efficiency, but it does not capture nonlinear manifolds of faces which exhibit pose variations. Conventional nonlinear classification methods based on kernels such as generalized discriminant analysis (GDA) and support vector machine (SVM) have been developed to overcome the shortcomings of the linear method, but they have the drawback of high computational cost of classification and overfitting. Our method is for multiclass nonlinear discrimination and it is computationally highly efficient as compared to GDA. The method does not suffer from overfitting by virtue of the linear base structure of the solution. A novel gradient-based learning algorithm is proposed for finding the optimal set of local linear bases. The optimization does not exhibit a local-maxima problem. The transformation functions facilitate robust face recognition in a low-dimensional subspace, under pose variations, using a single model image. The classification results are given for both synthetic and real face data.

GABA(A) receptor cell surface number and subunit stability are regulated by the ubiquitin-like protein Plic-1.

Controlling the number of functional gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA(A)) receptors in neuronal membranes is a crucial factor for the efficacy of inhibitory neurotransmission. Here we describe the direct interaction of GABA(A) receptors with the ubiquitin-like protein Plic-1. Furthermore, Plic-1 is enriched at inhibitory synapses and is associated with subsynaptic membranes. Functionally, Plic-1 facilitates GABA(A) receptor cell surface expression without affecting the rate of receptor internalization. Plic-1 also enhances the stability of intracellular GABA(A) receptor subunits, increasing the number of receptors available for insertion into the plasma membrane. Our study identifies a previously unknown role for Plic-1, a modulation of GABA(A) receptor cell surface number, which suggests that Plic-1 facilitates accumulation of these receptors in dendritic membranes.

The subcellular distribution of GABARAP and its ability to interact with NSF suggest a role for this protein in the intracellular transport of GABA(A) receptors.

GABA(A) receptors the major sites of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain are composed predominately of alpha, beta, and gamma2 subunits. The receptor gamma2 subunit interacts with a 17-kDa microtubule associated protein GABARAP, but the significance of this interaction remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that GABARAP, which immunoprecipitates with GABA(A) receptors, is not found at significant levels within inhibitory synapses, but is enriched within the Golgi apparatus and postsynaptic cisternae. We also demonstrate that GABARAP binds directly to N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF), a protein critical for intracellular membrane trafficking events. NSF and GABARAP complexes could be detected in neurons and these two proteins also colocalize within intracellular membrane compartments. Together our observations suggest that GABARAP may play a role in intracellular GABA(A) receptor transport but not synaptic anchoring, via its ability to interact with NSF. GABARAP may therefore have an important role in the production of GABAergic synapses.

Neurotransmitter receptor trafficking and the regulation of synaptic strength.

Modulation of the strength of synapses is thought to be one of the mechanisms that underlies learning and memory and is also likely to be important in processes of neuropathology and drug tolerance. This review focuses on the emerging role of postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptor trafficking as an essential mechanism underlying the dynamic regulation of synaptic strength.

Association of GABA(B) receptors and members of the 14-3-3 family of signaling proteins.

Two GABA(B) receptors, GABA(B)R1 and GABA(B)R2, have been cloned recently. Unlike other G protein-coupled receptors, the formation of a heterodimer between GABA(B)R1 and GABA(B)R2 is required for functional expression. We have used the yeast two hybrid system to identify proteins that interact with the C-terminus of GABA(B)R1. We report a direct association between GABA(B) receptors and two members of the 14-3-3 protein family, 14-3-3eta and 14-3-3zeta. We demonstrate that the C-terminus of GABA(B)R1 associates with 14-3-3zeta in rat brain preparations and tissue cultured cells, that they codistribute after rat brain fractionation, colocalize in neurons, and that the binding site overlaps partially with the coiled-coil domain of GABA(B)R1. Furthermore we show a reduced interaction between the C-terminal domains of GABA(B)R1 and GABA(B)R2 in the presence of 14-3-3. The results strongly suggest that GABA(B)R1 and 14-3-3 associate in the nervous system and begin to reveal the signaling complexities of the GABA(B)R1/GABA(B)R2 receptor heterodimer.

Analysis of GABAA receptor assembly in mammalian cell lines and hippocampal neurons using gamma 2 subunit green fluorescent protein chimeras.

Type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABAA), the major sites of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain, are believed to be predominantly composed of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits. To examine the membrane trafficking of GABAA receptors we have produced gamma 2L subunit chimeras with green fluorescent protein (GFP). Addition of GFP to the N-terminus of the gamma 2 subunit (gamma 2L-GFPN) was functionally silent for alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2L-GFPN receptors expressed in A293 cells. Furthermore, this chimera allowed the visualization of receptor membrane targeting and endocytosis in live cells. In contrast, incorporation of GFP at the C-terminus reduced subunit stability, impairing assembly with receptor alpha and beta subunits. Using gamma 2L-GFPN we were able to demonstrate that targeting of the gamma 2 subunit to GABAergic synapses in hippocampal neurons was dependent upon coassembly with receptor alpha and beta subunits. Together our results demonstrate that the assembly and membrane targeting of GABAA receptors composed of alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2L-GFPN subunits follow similar itineraries in heterologous systems and neurons.

Constitutive endocytosis of GABAA receptors by an association with the adaptin AP2 complex modulates inhibitory synaptic currents in hippocampal neurons.

Type A GABA receptors (GABA(A)) mediate the majority of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain and are believed to be predominantly composed of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits. Although changes in cell surface GABA(A) receptor number have been postulated to be of importance in modulating inhibitory synaptic transmission, little is currently known on the mechanism used by neurons to modify surface receptor levels at inhibitory synapses. To address this issue, we have studied the cell surface expression and maintenance of GABA(A) receptors. Here we show that constitutive internalization of GABA(A) receptors in hippocampal neurons and recombinant receptors expressed in A293 cells is mediated by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Furthermore, we identify an interaction between the GABA(A) receptor beta and gamma subunits with the adaptin complex AP2, which is critical for the recruitment of integral membrane proteins into clathrin-coated pits. GABA(A) receptors also colocalize with AP2 in cultured hippocampal neurons. Finally, blocking clathrin-dependant endocytosis with a peptide that disrupts the association between amphiphysin and dynamin causes a large sustained increase in the amplitude of miniature IPSCs in cultured hippocampal neurons. These results suggest that GABA(A) receptors cycle between the synaptic membrane and intracellular sites, and their association with AP2 followed by recruitment into clathrin-coated pits represents an important mechanism in the postsynaptic modulation of inhibitory synaptic transmission.

Large-scale analysis of gene expression changes during acute and chronic exposure to [Delta]9-THC in rats.

Large-scale cDNA microarrays were employed to assess transient changes in gene expression levels following acute and chronic exposure to cannabinoids in rats. A total of 24,456 cDNA clones were randomly selected from a rat brain cDNA library, amplified by PCR, and arrayed at high density to investigate differential gene expression profiles following acute (24 h), intermediate (7 days), and chronic (21 days) exposure to Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)-THC), the psychoactive ingredient of marijuana. Hippocampal mRNA probes labeled with (33)P obtained from both vehicle and Delta(9)-THC-treated animals were hybridized with identical cDNA microarrays. Results revealed a total of 49 different genes altered by Delta(9)-THC exposure; of these, 28 were identified, 10 had homologies to expressed sequence tags (ESTs), and 11 had no homology to known sequences in the GenBank database. Chronic or acute cannabinoid receptor activation altered expression of several genes (i.e., prostaglandin D synthase, calmodulin) involved in biochemical cascades of cannabinoid synthesis or cannabinoid effector systems. Other genes [i.e., neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), myelin basic protein], whose relation to cannabinoid system function was not immediately obvious, were also significantly altered. Verification of the changes obtained with the large-scale screen was determined by RNA dot blots in different groups of animals treated the same as those in the large-scale screen. Results are discussed in terms of the different types of genes affected at different times during chronic Delta(9)-THC exposure.

GABAA receptor phosphorylation and functional modulation in cortical neurons by a protein kinase C-dependent pathway.

GABA(A) receptors are critical mediators of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain, and the predominant receptor subtype in the central nervous system is believed to be a pentamer composed of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits. Previous studies on recombinant receptors have shown that protein kinase C (PKC) and PKA directly phosphorylate intracellular serine residues within the receptor beta subunit and modulate receptor function. However, the relevance of this regulation for neuronal receptors remains poorly characterized. To address this critical issue, we have studied phosphorylation and functional modulation of GABA(A) receptors in cultured cortical neurons. Here we show that the neuronal beta3 subunit is basally phosphorylated on serine residues by a PKC-dependent pathway. PKC inhibitors abolish basal phosphorylation, increasing receptor activity, whereas activators of PKC enhance beta3 phosphorylation with a concomitant decrease in receptor activity. PKA activators were shown to increase the phosphorylation of the beta3 subunit only in the presence of PKC inhibitors. We also show that the main sites of phosphorylation within the neuronal beta3 subunit are likely to include Ser-408 and Ser-409, residues that are important for the functional modulation of beta3-containing recombinant receptors. Furthermore, PKC activation did not change the total number of GABA(A) receptors in the plasma membrane, suggesting that the effects of PKC activation are on the gating or conductance of the channel. Together, these results illustrate that cell-signaling pathways that activate PKC may have profound effects on the efficacy of synaptic inhibition by directly modulating GABA(A) receptor function.

Identification of residues within GABA(A) receptor alpha subunits that mediate specific assembly with receptor beta subunits.

GABA(A) receptors can be constructed from a range of differing subunit isoforms: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. Expression studies have revealed that production of GABA-gated channels is achieved after coexpression of alpha and beta subunits. The expression of a gamma subunit isoform is essential to confer benzodiazepine sensitivity on the expressed receptor. However, how the specificity of subunit interactions is controlled during receptor assembly remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that residues 58-67 within alpha subunit isoforms are important in the assembly of receptors comprised of alphabeta and alphabetagamma subunits. Deletion of these residues from the alpha1 or alpha6 subunits results in retention of either alpha subunit isoform in the endoplasmic reticulum on coexpression with the beta3, or beta3 and gamma2 subunits. Immunoprecipitation revealed that residues 58-67 mediated oligomerization of the alpha1 and beta3 subunits, but were without affect on the production of alpha/gamma complexes. Within this domain, glutamine 67 was of central importance in mediating the production of functional alpha1beta3 receptors. Mutation of this residue resulted in a drastic decrease in the cell surface expression of alpha1beta3 receptors and the resulting expression of beta3 homomers. Sucrose density gradient centrifugation revealed that this residue was important for the production of a 9S alpha1beta3 complex representing functional GABA(A) receptors. Therefore, our studies detail residues that specify GABA(A) receptor alphabeta subunit interactions. This domain, which is conserved in all alpha subunit isoforms, will therefore play a critical role in the assembly of GABA(A) receptors composed of alphabeta and alphabetagamma subunits.

Edge postprocessing using probabilistic relaxation.

In this paper, we develop the theory of probabilistic relaxation when the objects to be labeled are arranged in a rectangular grid with known adjacency relations. In this case a dictionary of permissible label configurations is available. The novelty of this work lies in the inclusion of measurements concerning binary relations between the objects to be labeled. These are compared with the corresponding binary relations between the nodes of the dictionary. This way, one of the major objections to probabilistic relaxation, namely, the disregard of the data after the initial assignment of probabilities, is removed. The theory we develop is demonstrated by applying it to the problem of edge relaxation labeling. We show that the inclusion of binary relations greatly improves the performance of algorithms of this kind and compare our approach with previously developed dictionary based approaches, both theoretically and experimentally. Also, a comparison with other edge-postprocessing strategies is provided.

Cell surface stability of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors. Dependence on protein kinase C activity and subunit composition.

Type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA(A)), the major sites of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain, are believed to be composed predominantly of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits. Although cell surface expression is essential for GABA(A) receptor function, little is known regarding its regulation. To address this issue, the membrane stability of recombinant alpha(1)beta(2) or alpha(1)beta(2)gamma(2) receptors was analyzed in human embryonic kidney cells. Alpha(1)beta(2)gamma(2) but not alpha(1)beta(2) receptors were found to recycle constitutively between the cell surface and a microtubule-dependent, perinuclear endosomal compartment. Similar GABA(A) receptor endocytosis was also seen in cultured hippocampal and cortical neurons. GABA(A) receptor surface levels were reduced upon protein kinase C (PKC) activation. Like basal endocytosis, this response required the gamma(2) subunit but not receptor phosphorylation. Although inhibiting PKC activity did not block alpha(1)beta(2)gamma(2) receptor endocytosis, it did prevent receptor down-regulation, suggesting that PKC activity may block alpha(1)beta(2)gamma(2) receptor recycling to the cell surface. In agreement with this observation, blocking recycling from endosomes with wortmannin selectively reduced surface levels of gamma(2)-containing receptors. Together, our results demonstrate that the surface stability of GABA(A) receptors can be dynamically and specifically regulated, enabling neurons to modulate cell surface receptor number upon the appropriate cues.

Subunit-specific association of protein kinase C and the receptor for activated C kinase with GABA type A receptors.

GABA receptors (GABA(A)) are the major sites of fast synaptic inhibition in the brain and can be assembled from five subunit classes: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. Receptor function can be regulated by direct phosphorylation of beta and gamma2 subunits, but how kinases are targeted to GABA(A) receptors is unknown. Here we show that protein kinase C-betaII (PKC-betaII) is capable of directly binding to the intracellular domain of the receptor beta1 and beta3 subunits, but not to those of the alpha1 or gamma2 subunits. Moreover, associating PKC-betaII is capable of specifically phosphorylating serine 409 in beta1 subunit and serines 408/409 within the beta3 subunit, key residues for modulating GABA(A) receptor function. The receptor for activated C kinase (RACK-1) was found also to bind to the beta1 subunit intracellular domain, but PKC binding appeared to be independent of this protein. Using immunoprecipitation, the association of PKC isoforms and RACK-1 with neuronal GABA(A) receptors was seen. Furthermore, PKC isoforms associating with neuronal receptors were capable of phosphorylating the receptor beta3 subunit. Together, these observations suggest GABA(A) receptors are intimately associated with PKC isoforms via a direct interaction with receptor beta subunits. This interaction may serve to localize PKC activity to GABA(A) receptors in neurons allowing the rapid regulation of receptor activity by cell-signaling pathways that modify PKC activity.