Examination of empathy-like behaviour in nicotine-preferring rat lines.

AIM: Addiction is an important global health issue, impacting also addicts environment and society. Empathy plays crucial role in establishing successful social relationships and is a fundamental component of social life. The aim of this study is to investigate how nicotine preferring (NP) strain and oral forced nicotine administration affects empathy-like behaviour in rats, with gender differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sprague-Dawley NP rats (10 males/10 females) and wild-type control rats (10 males/10 females) were used. Behavioural tests were administered to all rats before and after oral forced nicotine administration. The behavioural tests were completed in the fourth week of nicotine administration. Anxiety levels that could affect empathy-like behaviour were evaluated with open field, elevated plus maze tests and with blood cortisol levels. Oxytocin receptor and arginine vasopressin (AVP) levels, which have been shown to be related to empathy-like behaviour, were examined in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala regions using the enzyme-linked immunoassay method. RESULTS: It was observed that males from the NP strain showed less empathy-like behaviour than all other groups, and nicotine administration did not cause a significant change in the results. Higher levels of locomotor activity (LA) were found in control females than in all other groups. Blood nicotine and corticosterone levels were higher in NP rats. No significant differences were found in AVP and oxytocin receptor levels in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala.Conclusions It was found that coming from an addicted strain particularly reduces empathy-like behaviour in males.

The ameliorative effect of midazolam on empathy-like behavior in old rats.

Although studies suggest that cognitive functions in the elderly are impaired, elderly people tend to be more successful and wiser in solving emotional problems. In empathy-like behavior models, the observer rat rescues the distressed cage mate by displaying emotional and cognitive ability. The aim of the study was to investigate the changes in empathy-like behavior in older rats in comparison to adult rats. In addition, we wanted to determine the effects of alterations in neurochemicals (such as corticosterone, oxytocin, vasopressin, and their receptor levels) and emotional situations on this behavior. In our study, we initially completed empathy-like behavior tests and emotional tests (open field, elevated plus maze) and performed neurochemical examinations in the serum and brain tissues. In the second step of research, we applied a midazolam (benzodiazepine) treatment to examine the effect of anxiety on empathy-like behavior. In the old rats, we observed that empathy-like behavior deteriorated, and anxiety signs were more pronounced. We detected a positive correlation between the latency in empathy-like behavior and corticosterone levels and v1b receptor levels. The midazolam effect on empathy-like behavior was attenuated by flumazenil (a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist). The recordings of ultrasonic vocalization showed frequencies around 50 kHz emitted by the observer and this was associated with the expectation of social contact. Our results state that compared to adult rats, old rats were more concerned and failed during empathy-like behavior. Midazolam may improve this behavior by anxiolysis.

Do PON1-Q192R and PON1-L55M polymorphisms modify the effects of hypoxic training on paraoxonase and arylesterase activity?

BACKGROUND: Low levels of antioxidant paraoxonase 1 (PON1) enzyme activity, PON1-Q192R polymorphism (a glutamine (Q) to arginine (R) substitution at position 192), PON1-L55M polymorphism (a leucine (L) to methionine (M) substitution at position 55), and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) are risk factors for coronary heart disease. Aerobic exercise improves PON1 activity, but the effects of hypoxic exercise are yet unclear. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of hypoxic underwater rugby training on PON1 activity and oxLDL levels and the role of the mentioned polymorphisms. METHODS: Serum PON1 and arylesterase activities (ARE), PON1, PON3, and oxLDL protein levels (by using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays) were determined in an athletic group (42 trained male underwater rugby players; age = 21.7 ± 4.2 years, mean ± SD) and a control group (43 sedentary men; age = 23.9 ± 3.2 years). The polymorphisms were determined from genomic DNA samples. RESULTS: PON1 activity (25.1%, p = 0.052), PON3 (p < 0.001), and oxLDL (p < 0.001) of the athletic group, including most genotype groups, were higher than those of the control group. In comparison to the controls, PON1 activity levels (p = 0.005) of the PON1-Q192R homozygote QQ genotype group and PON1 activity levels (30%, p = 0.116) of the PON1-L55M homozygote LL genotype group were higher, whereas ARE activity values of athletic R allele carrier (Rc = QR + RR) (p = 0.005) and LL group (p = 0.002) were lower than the control genotype groups related to their polymorphisms. CONCLUSION: Hypoxic training can cause (1) significant oxidative stress, including oxLDL, and an antioxidant response (increase in PON1 activity and PON3), (2) differences in the activity of PON1 and ARE, which are modified by PON1-Q192R and PON1-L55M polymorphisms, respectively, and (3) improvements in PON1 activity of QQ and LL groups. However, hypoxic training can cause a disadvantage of LL and Rc groups for ARE.

Repeated acetaminophen administration damaged hippocampal tissue but did not affect prefrontal cortex or anxiety behaviors.

Acetaminophen is one of the most widely used over­the­counter drugs worldwide for the treatment of pain and fever. Although acetaminophen use is known to impair hippocampus­related learning and memory, its effect on anxiety is not clear. Insulin­like growth factor­1 (IGF­1) and matrix metalloproteinase­2 (MMP2) are important for cellular survival, maintenance and tissue integrity. The aim of this study was to investigate the dose­dependent effects of acetaminophen on anxiety levels as well as on hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and liver tissue. Doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg acetaminophen were administered to male Sprague Dawley rats for 11 days and anxiety tests were conducted on the last day. Twenty­four hours after the last acetaminophen administration, all animals were sacrificed and hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and liver tissues were removed for analyses. Hippocampal IGF­1 and MMP2 levels were shown to decrease only at the highest dose of acetaminophen, which was accompanied by pathological changes in histology. The prefrontal cortex was not affected. Behavioral analyses also did not indicate changes in anxiety levels in the rats. Liver IGF­1 and MMP2 levels decreased in all experimental groups. Serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels increased in the 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg acetaminophen groups. Our findings showed that varying doses of acetaminophen did not affect the prefrontal cortex or anxiety levels. Further research is needed to elucidate the hippocampal and hepatic protective roles of IGF­1 and MMP2 in acetaminophen toxicity and their potential use in therapeutic approaches.

A combination of ketogenic diet and voluntary exercise ameliorates anxiety and depression-like behaviors in Balb/c mice.

The positive effects of both ketogenic diet (KD) and regular voluntary exercise on anxiety and depression behavior have been recently reported in rodent animals, but the effects of pairing a KD with exercise on depression and anxiety are unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of combination of KD and regular voluntary exercise on anxiety and depression-like behavior in Balb/c mice. We've demostrated that anxiety and depression levels decreased in KD-exercised (KD-Ex) mice. ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) levels increased while glucose, insulin levels and LDL/HDL ratio decreased in KD-Ex mice. There was a negative correlation between BHB and the time spent in the closed arms of elevated plus maze (EPM) or the time spent in periphery walls of open field test (OFT) and the immobility time in forced swim test (FST) which all of them are indicators of low depression and anxiety levels. There was a positive correlation between LDL/HDL ratio and the time spent in the closed arms of EPM or the immobility time in FST. The immobility time in FST was positively correlated with insulin while the mobility time in FST was negatively correlated with glucose. In conclusion, these results suggest that decline in anxiety and depression-like behaviors resulted from KD with regular voluntary exercise may be associated with increased BHB levels and decreased LDL/HDL ratio and insulin or glucose levels. Further research is necessary for our understanding of the mechanisms by which pairing a KD with voluntary exercise influences brain and behavior.

The effects of chronic restraint stress on empathy-like behaviour in rats.

It is clearly known that psychological stress is an important threat to health in today's modern societies. Recent studies have shown that acute stress causes an increase in positive social behaviours such as prosocial behaviour and devotion which are components of empathic behaviour. Neuropsychiatric manifestations such as anxiety and depression may affect empathic behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of chronic restraint stress on empathy-like behaviour and the histopathological changes in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex in the adrenal glands and thymus, as well as the neurochemical pathways associated with empathy, oxytocin and vasopressin. The chronic stress group was subjected to restraint stress daily for 14 days after all subjects were trained to rescue its stressed cagemate using empathy test equipment for 12 days. It was observed that chronic restraint stress had no effect on empathy-like behaviour in rats. Vasopressin levels in amygdala was increased in chronic stress group compared to control group. Anxiety and depression indicators did not change in both groups. In the open field test, control group spent more time in thigmo zone compared to chronic stress group. Adrenal glands relative weights and apoptotic cell ratios were significantly higher in the chronic stress group compared to the control group (expectedly). Although there was no significant difference in behavioral tests, histopathological changes were detected. In subsequent studies, it is appropriate to examine the effects of different types of stress applications, gender-related changes, and other neurochemical pathways associated with stress and empathy.

Regular aerobic exercise increased VEGF levels in both soleus and gastrocnemius muscles correlated with hippocampal learning and VEGF levels.

Physical exercise improves learning and memory abilities by increasing the levels of several growth factors in the hippocampus. One growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), is primarily produced in the muscles and not only increases in the periphery during exercise but can also cross the blood-brain barrier. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of regular aerobic chronic exercise on different types of muscle fibers and the relationships between learning/memory and muscle induced-VEGF. Following a one-week adaptation period, male rats underwent treadmill training at a speed of 8 m/min for 30 min daily, 3 days a week for 6 weeks. Memory functions were evaluated using the Morris water maze. VEGF, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured in type 1 and type 2 muscle fibers and VEGF levels were also measured in the hippocampus. Exercise positively affected both learning and memory and also increased VEGF levels in both muscle fiber types. Muscle VEGF levels positively correlate with hippocampal learning and hippocampal VEGF levels. Exercise reduced both SOD and MDA levels in type 1 and type 2 muscle fibers, whereas GPx levels decreased only in type 2 muscle fibers. Our findings suggest that regular aerobic exercise elevates VEGF levels and diminishes oxidative stress in both fiber types. Exercise-induced VEGF levels in both type 1 and 2 muscle fibers appear to be associated with the positive effect of exercise on learning and memory function and is accompanied by an increase in VEGF levels in the hippocampus. Further research is needed to elucidate the exact mechanism by which fiber type-specific VEGF mediates hippocampal neurogenesis and angiogenesis.Physical exercise improves learning and memory abilities by increasing the levels of several growth factors in the hippocampus. One growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), is primarily produced in the muscles and not only increases in the periphery during exercise but can also cross the blood-brain barrier. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of regular aerobic chronic exercise on different types of muscle fibers and the relationships between learning/memory and muscle induced-VEGF. Following a one-week adaptation period, male rats underwent treadmill training at a speed of 8 m/min for 30 min daily, 3 days a week for 6 weeks. Memory functions were evaluated using the Morris water maze. VEGF, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured in type 1 and type 2 muscle fibers and VEGF levels were also measured in the hippocampus. Exercise positively affected both learning and memory and also increased VEGF levels in both muscle fiber types. Muscle VEGF levels positively correlate with hippocampal learning and hippocampal VEGF levels. Exercise reduced both SOD and MDA levels in type 1 and type 2 muscle fibers, whereas GPx levels decreased only in type 2 muscle fibers. Our findings suggest that regular aerobic exercise elevates VEGF levels and diminishes oxidative stress in both fiber types. Exercise-induced VEGF levels in both type 1 and 2 muscle fibers appear to be associated with the positive effect of exercise on learning and memory function and is accompanied by an increase in VEGF levels in the hippocampus. Further research is needed to elucidate the exact mechanism by which fiber type-specific VEGF mediates hippocampal neurogenesis and angiogenesis.

Magnesium Citrate Increases Pain Threshold and Reduces TLR4 Concentration in the Brain.

Magnesium is being investigated in various clinical conditions and has shown to be effective in some chronic pain models. However, it is not clear if oral magnesium use affects pain perception in acute pain. TLR4's (toll-like receptor) role in pain perception has emerged through its role in immune pathways and ion channels. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of a single oral dose of magnesium citrate on pain conduction and whether with magnesium, the expression of TLR4 changes in the acute phase. Following a single dose of 66-mg/kg magnesium citrate administration to male Balb-c mice, pain perception (via hot-plate test), motor conduction (via electrophysiological recording, forelimb grip strength, rotarod and open-field tests), and emotional state (via elevated plus maze and forced swim test) were evaluated. In behavioral experiments, the control group was compared with applied magnesium for three different time groups (4, 8, 24 h). TLR4 expression was measured in four groups: control, magnesium (Mg), hot plate (HP), and Mg + HP. Hot plate latency was prolonged in the magnesium group (p < 0.0001) and electrophysiological recordings (p < 0.001) and forelimb grip strength measurement (p < 0.001) determined motor latency. Compared with the untreated hot plate group, TLR4 levels was lower in the brain (p = 0.023) and higher in the sciatic nerve (p = 0.001) in the magnesium-treated hot plate group. Consequently, the study indicated a single dose of magnesium citrate appeared to cause weakening in the transmission and perception of nociceptive pain. TLR4 may act as a regulator in magnesium's effects on pain perception.

Magnesium Acetyl Taurate Prevents Tissue Damage and Deterioration of Prosocial Behavior Related with Vasopressin Levels in Traumatic Brain Injured Rats.

AIM: To investigate the effects of different magnesium forms on tissue damage, cognitive and emotional behavioural impairment after mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Rats were divided into 5 groups (control, trauma, magnesium sulphate, magnesium citrate, magnesium acetyl taurate) and following head trauma, empathy-like behaviour, anxiety-like behaviour (elevated plus maze and open field tests), and depression (forced swim test) were measured. The rats were then sacrificed 12 days later. Oxytocin, vasopressin and receptors levels in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex regions were measured. Histopathological damage (with haematoxylin-eosin staining) and apoptosis (with caspase-3 immunohistochemistry) was evaluated. RESULTS: Following head trauma, anxiety-like behaviour and depression tests did not change; empathy-like behaviour deteriorated on the 3rd day and improved gradually on the 6th and 12th days. Oxytocin, vasopressin and vasopressin v1b receptor levels decreased in the amygdala; morphological damage and apoptosis were significant. Magnesium acetyl taurate effectively ameliorated histopathological deteriorations and improved vasopressin and v1b receptor levels in the amygdala. Transient deterioration of empathy-like behaviour was impeded only in magnesium taurate treatment. CONCLUSION: Magnesium acetyl taurate can be a promising candidate agent to prevent structural and functional damage in traumatic brain injury.

Hepatitis A, B and C seropositivity among first-year healthcare students in western Turkey: a seroprevalence study.

BACKGROUND: The risk of viral hepatitis among healthcare students (HCSs) is greater than that among the general population. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence of the hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) among first-year HCSs at a university in Turkey and as a secondary objective, to determine the factors associated with HAV and HBV seropositivity. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was performed in first-year HCSs in Izmir, western Turkey. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire including items on sociodemographic characteristics, medical history, and hygiene. A total of 650 HCSs were tested for the HAV, HBV and HCV markers. Categorical variables were compared using the chi-square test. The association between independent variables and anti-HAV seropositivity and anti-HBs seropositivity was assessed by multinomial logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: The overall frequency of total anti-HAV seropositivity was 34.9%. HBsAg, total anti-HBc and anti-HBs seropositivity were found in 0.3, 1.2 and 93.7% of samples, respectively. All of the HCSs were negative for anti-HCV. Total anti-HAV seropositivity was found to be 1.73 times higher in those ≥21 years old, and it was 1.61 times higher in those who perceived their economic status to be average and 2.75 times higher in those who perceived their economic status to be low. Total anti-HAV seropositivity was found to be 4.37 times higher in those who lived in provinces with intermediate human development index levels. Total anti-HBs seropositivity was found to be 2.48 times higher in those ≤20 years old, and it was 2.13 times higher in those who perceived their economic status to be average. CONCLUSIONS: Approximately two out of three HCSs were susceptible to HAV infection. Since HCSs are at high risk for HAV infection, they should be vaccinated before medical clerkships begin. Our results indicate that there is a high prevalence of anti-HBs seropositivity among HCSs. This result may be largely attributed to the implementation of a successful vaccination program in Turkey since 1998.

The Chronic Use of Magnesium Decreases VEGF Levels in the Uterine Tissue in Rats.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the most important regulator of angiogenesis which serves to provide sufficient blood supply, and can trigger both physiological and pathological angiogenesis. Recent studies have shown that VEGF increases in gynecological diseases (such as endometriosis, ovarian, and endometrial cancers) and is a prognostic factor in these pathologies. Therefore, VEGF should be maintained at appropriate levels. Magnesium is used in many gynecological practices (such as eclampsia, preeclampsia, dysmenorrhea, and climacteric symptoms) and the mechanisms of action are still under investigation. Redox status, which can be regulated by magnesium, was shown to affect VEGF expression. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of chronic magnesium use on VEGF and oxidative status in the uterus. Magnesium sulfate was administered to rats at doses of 30 mg/kg (intramuscular) for 2 weeks. VEGF, Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured using ELISA; vascular and cellular alterations were determined by histology in the uterine tissue at the metoestrus phase. In the uterine tissue of Mg-treated subjects, magnesium levels increased while VEGF, SOD, GPx, and MDA levels decreased without histological changes. There was a negative correlation between uterine tissue magnesium levels and VEGF, SOD, GPx, and MDA levels. Consequently, the results of this study demonstrated that regular magnesium use decreased VEGF levels in uterus. Decreased VEGF levels were associated with decreased uterine oxidative stress. Chronic magnesium usage may protect the uterine tissue from certain diseases in which angiogenesis is critical.

Mild-intensity Exercise Triggers VEGF in the Digestive Tract Via Both Hypoxic and Nonhypoxic Mechanisms

Abstract Hypoxia occurs in the splanchnic region during exercise associated with sympathetic activity. In the elderly, vascular insufficiency and low vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression are observed. Compared to young people, sympathetic signals of older individuals are blunted and more resistant to splanchnic blood flow alterations during exercise. VEGF induces vasodilation responses and hence may retain blood in the splanchnic vascular bed. We hypothesized that regular mild-intensity exercise triggers weak VEGF expression in the digestive tract of the elderly. The effects of exercise on the levels of VEGF, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), malondialdehyde (MDA) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in the stomach, jejunum, ileum and colon tissues were evaluated. With exercise, the VEGF levels in the stomach and colon increased. Although the SOD, GPx, and MDA levels decreased in the stomach, they increased in the colon. T-AOC increased in the stomach and there was no change in the jejunum, ileum and colon. The hypoperfusion during exercise was not equal in all regions of the gastrointestinal tract in the aged subjects. Hypoxia and other exercise-related mechanisms could have led to this VEGF induction. The stomach, jejunum, and ileum might have developed resistance to ischemia. The induction of VEGF may be beneficial in aging-associated impaired gastrointestinal homeostasis and neovascularization.

Highly monodisperse Pd-Ni nanoparticles supported on rGO as a rapid, sensitive, reusable and selective enzyme-free glucose sensor.

In this work, highly monodispersed palladium-nickel (Pd-Ni) nanoparticles supported on reduced graphene oxide (rGO) were synthesized by the microwave-assisted methodology. The synthesized nanoparticles were used for modification of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) to produce our final product as PdNi@rGO/GCE, which were utilized for non-enzymatic detecting of glucose. In the present study, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), chronoamperometry (CA) and, cyclic voltammetry (CV) methods were implemented to investigate the sensing performance of the developed glucose electrode. The modified electrode, PdNi@rGO/GCE, exhibited very noticeable results with a linear working range of 0.05-1.1 mM. Moreover, an ultralow detection limit of 0.15 µM was achieved. According to the results of amperometric signals of the electrodes, no significant change was observed, even after 250 h of operation period. In addition, the highly monodisperse PdNi@rGO/GCE was utilized to electrochemical detection of glucose in real serum samples. In light of the results, PdNi@rGO/GCE has shown an excellent sensing performance and can be used successfully in serum samples for glucose detection and it is suitable for practical and clinical applications.

Regular Aerobic Voluntary Exercise Increased Oxytocin in Female Mice: The Cause of Decreased Anxiety and Increased Empathy-Like Behaviors

Background: It is known that regular physical activity reduces anxiety. Low anxiety levels affect mood, emotions, and empathy. Oxytocin is a powerful hormone that regulates social interaction, sexual reproduction, maternal­infant bonding, milk release, empathy, and anxiety. Empathy is an important behavior in the living community; and also important for sportsmen during sportive competition and daily living life, because sportsmen are also role model of people. Aims: To investigate the effects of voluntary physical activity on oxytocin, anxiety, and empathy levels as well as the relationship between them. Study Design: Animal experiment. Methods: Male and female mice were made to exercise in running wheel cages for 6 weeks. Their empathy and anxiety levels were evaluated by using Helping Behavior test and elevated plus maze and open field test, respectively. And then the brain and blood oxytocin levels were measured. Results: Empathy-like behavior was improved in both genders of the exercise groups (door-opening time decreased in both genders of exercise groups, p for both=0.0001). As a response to exercise, both the brain and serum oxytocin levels increased in female mice (both of p=0.0001); however, in males, oxytocin levels increased in only the brain (p<0.05). Anxiety levels decreased in all the exercise groups (increased time spent in the middle area of open field test, both genders, p=0.002; increased time spent in the open arms of elevated plus maze test, females p=0.004, males p=0.0001). There was a strong negative correlation between serum oxytocin levels and door opening time of helping behavior equipment, and moderate negative correlation was found between the brain oxytocin levels and door-opening time of helping behavior equipment in females. However, there was no correlation between both the brain and serum oxytocin levels and empathy behavior in males. But there were very strong positive correlations between low anxiety indicators and both the brain and serum oxytocin levels in both the genders. Conclusion: Voluntary physical activity decreases anxiety and increases empathy-like behavior in mice; which is associated with increased oxytocin levels in female mice but not in male mice. Further research is required to investigate the mechanisms of exercise effect on anxiety and empathic brain pathways in males.

Dose-Dependent Absorption Profile of Different Magnesium Compounds.

Magnesium, one of the basic elements for the human body, is necessary for many physiological functions. Magnesium deficiency is widely observed as a result of the reduced nutrient content of foods, over-cooking, diseases, drugs, alcohol, and caffeine consumption. Taking a dietary supplement is necessary magnesium deficiency. It has been demonstrated that absorption of organic magnesium compounds is better than absorption of inorganic compounds. The aim of this study is to investigate transitions to tissues of different organic magnesium compounds in different doses and whether there is a difference in the organic acid-bounded compounds (magnesium citrate and magnesium malate) and the amino acid-bounded compounds (magnesium acetyl taurate and magnesium glycinate), associated with transition and bioavailability. In addition, the effects of split dosages of high doses in a high volume of solvent on tissue magnesium levels are being investigated, because galenic formulation problems are regarded to prepare convenient dosage that can be taken once a day. All magnesium compounds were administered as three different doses, 45, 135, and 405 mg/70 kg elemental magnesium, were given per orally to Balbc mice. In a second set of experiments, 405 mg/70 kg high dose was divided into two doses of 202.5 mg/70 kg each and administered every 12 h. Brain, muscle tissues, and serum magnesium levels measured in all experimental groups and control 24 h later. Brain magnesium levels were found increased in all magnesium acetyl taurate administered subjects. Magnesium citrate increased muscle and brain magnesium levels in a dose-independent manner. We showed that dividing high doses of daily administered magnesium compounds did not sufficiently increase tissue magnesium levels. Although passive paracellular mechanism by solvent drag is the main mechanism of Mg absorption, other factors (electrochemical gradient effects, transcellular transporter mechanisms, magnesium status) should be effective on our results. It is necessary for further research on long-term administration of different magnesium compounds and their effect on other tissues.

Timeline (Bioavailability) of Magnesium Compounds in Hours: Which Magnesium Compound Works Best?

Magnesium is an element of great importance functioning because of its association with many cellular physiological functions. The magnesium content of foods is gradually decreasing due to food processing, and magnesium supplementation for healthy living has become increasingly popular. However, data is very limited on the bioavailability of various magnesium preparations. The aim of this study is to investigate the bioavailability of five different magnesium compounds (magnesium sulfate, magnesium oxide, magnesium acetyl taurate, magnesium citrate, and magnesium malate) in different tissues. Following a single dose 400 mg/70 kg magnesium administration to Sprague Dawley rats, bioavailability was evaluated by examining time-dependent absorption, tissue penetration, and the effects on the behavior of the animals. Pharmacokinetically, the area under the curve calculation is highest in the magnesium malate. The magnesium acetyl taurate was found to have the second highest area under the curve calculation. Magnesium acetyl taurate was rapidly absorbed, able to pass through to the brain easily, had the highest tissue concentration level in the brain, and was found to be associated with decreased anxiety indicators. Magnesium malate levels remained high for an extended period of time in the serum. The commonly prescribed dietary supplements magnesium oxide and magnesium citrate had the lowest bioavailability when compared to our control group. More research is needed to investigate the bioavailability of magnesium malate and acetyl taurate compounds and their effects in specific tissues and on behavior.

Acetaminophen (paracetamol) affects empathy-like behavior in rats: Dose-response relationship.

Empathy is the ability to recognize, process and respond to another's emotional state and empathic functions have been linked with a multitude of cognitive and affective processes. Impaired empathy has been linked to aggression and criminal behavior in society. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) is among the most common nonprescription (over the counter) analgesics in the world and has been already linked to reducing empathic behavior in humans. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of acetaminophen on empathy-like behavior in Sprague Dawley rats, and we further explored the underlying mechanisms by analyzing empathy related neurohormones, e.g. oxytocin and vasopressin, in association with acetaminophen exposure in rats. Empathic behavior was assessed 30 min following acetaminophen administration (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg). The impact of single and repeated acetaminophen administrations on empathy-like behavior and anxiety level were evaluated separately. Empathy-like behavior was reduced with a single high dose of acetaminophen. Subsequent low dose administration of acetaminophen also reduced empathy-like behavior. In this study we also showed that acetaminophen decreased oxytocin and vasopressin levels in the prefrontal cortex and amygdalae. We found a negative correlation between delay in door opening time and measured prefrontal cortex oxytocin levels; we adjudged the latency in door opening time as enhanced empathic behavior which seemingly suggested the existence of a mechanism between empathy-like behavior and the prefrontal oxytocin. We observed that both a single high dose or repeated low dose administrations of acetaminophen reduced empathy-like behavior in correlation with a decrease in oxytocin and vasopressin levels in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Further research is needed to investigate the role of acetaminophen on the other empathic brain pathways.

The effects of acute foot shock stress on empathy levels in rats.

Empathy defined as the ability to understand and the share the feelings, thoughts, and attitudes of another, is an important skill in survival and reproduction. Among many factors that affect empathy include psychological stress, anxiety states. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of acute psychological stress on empathic behavior and its association with oxytocin and vasopressin levels in amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Rats were subjected to 0.2 mA (low) and 1.6 mA (high) intensity of foot shock stress for duration of 20 min. Empathic behavior was found to be improved as a response to low intensity stress, but not to high intensity stress. As a response to lower intensity stress, vasopressin was increased in prefrontal cortex and amygdala; oxytocin was increased in only prefrontal cortex, and corticosterone levels increased in general. Anxiety indicators did not change in low intensity stress group yet; high intensity stress group demonstrated a lesser degree of anxiety response. High intensity stress group stayed unexpectedly more active in middle area of elevated plus maze test equipment, which may support impaired executive decision making abilities in the setting of high anxiety states. Further research is needed to investigate gender effects, the role of dopaminergic system and other stress related pathways in acute stress.

Regular aerobic exercise correlates with reduced anxiety and incresed levels of irisin in brain and white adipose tissue.

We have recently shown that regular voluntary aerobic exercised rats have low levels of anxiety. Irisin is an exercise-induced myokine that is produced by many tissues; and the role it plays in anxiolytic behavior is unknown. In this study we aimed to investigate the correlation between anxiety like behavior and irisin levels following regular voluntary aerobic exercise in male mice. We've have shown that anxiety levels decreased in exercised mice, while irisin levels increased in the brain, brown adipose tissue, white adipose tissue, kidney, and pancreas tissues. No significant difference of irisin levels in the liver, muscle and serum were detected in the exercise group, when compared to controls. In addition, there was a strong positive correlation between brain irisin levels and activity in middle area of open field test and in the open arms of elevated plus maze test; both which are indicators of low anxiety levels. Our results suggest that decrease in anxiolytic behavior due to regular voluntary exercise may be associated with locally produced brain irisin. White adipose tissue irisin levels also correlated very strongly with low anxiety. However, no serum irisin increase was detected, ruling out the possibility of increased peripheral irisin levels affecting the brain via the bloodstream. Further research is necessary to explain the mechanisms of which peripheral and central irisin effects anxiety and the brain region affected.

Treatment of K562 cells with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces distinct alterations in the expression of apoptosis-related genes BCL2, BAX, BCLXL, and p21.

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a very important phenomenon in cytotoxicity induced by anticancer treatment. 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25-(OH)(2)D(3)), the active metabolite of vitamin D, inhibits the growth of multiple types of cancer cells including breast, colon, and prostate cancer cell lines. We studied alterations in the mRNA expression levels of BCL2, BAX, CYC, BCL-XL, and VDR genes in the K562 chronic myeloid leukemia cell line in response to treatment with 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3). Morphological observation of K562 cells was evaluated by the staining with Wright's solution. Cell percentage at different phases of the cell cycle was measured, and apoptosis was measured by flow cytometry. The expression levels of the apoptosis-related genes were analyzed by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. We found that treatment with 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) down-regulates BCL2 and BCL-XL mRNA expressions, as well as up-regulates expressions of BAX and p21 mRNA. The expression pattern of CYC and VDR genes were not influenced. However, K562 cells treated with 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) caused an arrest of cell cycle progression in G1 phase resulting in a decreased number of cells in the S phase, complemented by an accumulation of cells in the G0-G1 phases. Our data show the modulatory effects of 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) treatment in apoptosis-related genes in K562 cells.