Freud's views on early female sexuality in the light of direct child observation.

Freud's writings on early female sexuality are reviewed in order to demonstrate which of his central assumptions are supported and which have been corrected by the direct observation of young children. The study of the emergence of core gender identity in little girls is a key to the modification of Freud's statements on the onset of and crucial factors in the development of femininity. Cognitive functions, learning experiences, and language are believed to be more important than Freud stressed, and penis envy and feelings of inferiority are relegated to a less universal and less necessary place in the onset of femininity. The role of the father is given different emphasis. Direct observation clarifies many aspects of masturbation or early genital self-stimulation in the young female: its onset; its feminine rather than masculine character; its early vicissitudes; its importance relative to other behavior; the impact of the discovery of anatomical difference; one special way it is affected by parental attitude; and how it contrasts with comparable behavior in the young male. Observation refutes Freud's often quoted statement that masturbation is further removed from the nature of women than of men.

The establishment of core gender identity in normal girls. I. (a) introduction; (b) development of the ego capacity to differentiate.

There has been a gradual shift from Freud's point of view that there is no femininity until the phallic phase. Modification of Freud's view on the onset of femininity is furthered by establishing that differences between boys and girls are observable in the preoedipal period and by studying the origin of a girl's sense of femaleness, i.e., her core gender identity. It is not essential whether we call this early development of the girl's sense of her femaleness core gender identity, earliest gender identity,or precursors of gender identity.Several studies confirm it is an essential foundation on which subsequent gender identity is built, Its establishment is normally well under way and sometimes irreversible by age 3 and more firmly secured in the fourth and fifth years. Of the multiple factors-biological (including its expression as instinctual drive), genetic, and experiental-contributing to core gender identity, the ego capacity to differentiate is traced and stressed as a necessary condition. The psychoanalytic and relevant nonpsychoanalytic literature is reviewed. Cognitive functions play a more significant role in core gender identity formation than previously believed and probably are more universally contributory at this early age (before 3) than identification mechanisms, envy of the male genitals, or castration anxiety. Ascription of gender at birth followed by the environmental confirmation impinging on progressively maturating cognitive capacities in the child would then normally be the organizer of gender identity, although definitely not the sole forces molding it.

The establishment of core gender identity in normal girls. II. How meanings are conveyed between parent and child in the first 3 years.

Observations of a normal female child from birth to 3 years are selected to illustrate some of the ways early gender identity is established. These and observations of other normal children suggest that meanings conveyed by parents and identification processes contribute to the establishment of significant beginnings of gender identity before the phallic period and before penis envy, castration anxiety, and the oedipal complex contribute their main influence.