Evidence of Diversity, Site, and Host Specificity of Sea Turtle Blood Flukes (Digenea: Schistosomatoidea: "Spirorchiidae"): A Molecular Prospecting Study.

Neospirorchis (Digenea: "Spirorchiidae") are blood flukes of sea turtles. Trematodes tentatively identified as Neospirorchis sp. infect various sites within sea turtles inhabiting waters of the southeastern United States, but efforts to obtain specimens adequate for morphologic study has proven difficult. Two genetic targets, the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA gene and the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene, were used to investigate potential diversity among parasite specimens collected from stranded sea turtles. Sequence data were obtained from 215 trematode and egg specimens collected from 92 individual free-ranging cheloniid sea turtles comprising 4 host species. Molecular analysis yielded more than 20 different genotypes. We were able to assign 1 genotype to 1 of the 2 recognized species, Neospirorchis pricei Manter and Larson, 1950 . In many examples, genotypes exhibited host and site specificity. Our findings indicate considerable diversity of parasites resembling Neospirorchis with evidence of a number of uncharacterized blood flukes that require additional study.

Mycoplasmosis and upper respiratory tract disease of tortoises: a review and update.

Tortoise mycoplasmosis is one of the most extensively characterized infectious diseases of chelonians. A 1989 outbreak of upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) in free-ranging Agassiz's desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) brought together an investigative team of researchers, diagnosticians, pathologists, immunologists and clinicians from multiple institutions and agencies. Electron microscopic studies of affected tortoises revealed a microorganism in close association with the nasal mucosa that subsequently was identified as a new species, Mycoplasma agassizii. Over the next 24 years, a second causative agent, Mycoplasma testudineum, was discovered, the geographic distribution and host range of tortoise mycoplasmosis were expanded, diagnostic tests were developed and refined for antibody and pathogen detection, transmission studies confirmed the pathogenicity of the original M. agassizii isolate, clinical (and subclinical) disease and laboratory abnormalities were characterized, many extrinsic and predisposing factors were found to play a role in morbidity and mortality associated with mycoplasmal infection, and social behavior was implicated in disease transmission. The translation of scientific research into management decisions has sometimes led to undesirable outcomes, such as euthanasia of clinically healthy tortoises. In this article, we review and assess current research on tortoise mycoplasmosis, arguably the most important chronic infectious disease of wild and captive North American and European tortoises, and update the implications for management and conservation of tortoises in the wild.

Mycoplasma agassizii strain variation and distinct host antibody responses explain differences between enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and Western blot assays.

The precarious status of desert (Gopherus agassizii) and gopher (G. polyphemus) tortoises has resulted in conservation efforts that now include health assessment as an important component of management decision-making. Mycoplasmal upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is one of very few diseases in chelonians for which comprehensive and rigorously validated diagnostic tests exist. In this study, serum samples obtained from eight Gopherus tortoises documented at necropsy to (i) be enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) seropositive using the PS6 antigen, (ii) be infected with Mycoplasma agassizii as indicated by direct isolation of the pathogen from the respiratory surfaces, and (iii) have histological lesions of mycoplasmal URTD were used to evaluate four distinct clinical isolates of M. agassizii as antigens for ELISA and Western blot analyses. Each animal sample reacted in the Western blot with its homologous M. agassizii strain, but recognition of heterologous M. agassizii strains was variable. Further, individual animals varied significantly with respect to the specific proteins recognized by the humoral immune response. An additional 114 Gopherus serum samples were evaluated using ELISA antigens prepared from the four distinct M. agassizii strains; A405 values were significantly correlated (r² goodness of fit range, 0.708 to 0.771; P < 0.0001) for all antigens tested. The results confirm that strain variation is responsible for the observed differences between Western blot binding patterns. Thus, reliance on a single M. agassizii strain as an antigen in Western blot assays may provide false-negative results. This could have adverse consequences for the well-being of these environmentally sensitive hosts if false-negative animals were relocated to sites consisting of true-negative populations.

Social behavior drives the dynamics of respiratory disease in threatened tortoises.

Since the early 1990s, morbidity and mortality in tortoise populations have been associated with a transmissible, mycoplasmal upper respiratory tract disease (URTD). Although the etiology, transmission, and diagnosis of URTD have been extensively studied, little is known about the dynamics of disease transmission in free-ranging tortoise populations. To understand the transmission dynamics of Mycoplasma agassizii, the primary etiological agent of URTD in wild tortoise populations, we studied 11 populations of free-ranging gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus; n = 1667 individuals) over five years and determined their exposure to the pathogen by serology, by clinical signs, and by detection of the pathogen in nasal lavages. Adults tortoises (n = 759) were 11 times more likely to be seropositive than immature animals (n = 242) (odds ratio = 10.6, 95% CI = 5.7-20, P < 0.0001). Nasal discharge was observed in only 1.4% (4/296) of immature tortoises as compared with 8.6% (120/1399) of adult tortoises. Nasal lavages from all juvenile tortoises (n = 283) were negative by PCR for mycoplasmal pathogens associated with URTD. We tested for spatial segregation among tortoise burrows by size class and found no consistent evidence of clustering of either juveniles or adults. We suggest that the social behavior of tortoises plays a critical role in the spread of URTD in wild populations, with immature tortoises having minimal interactions with adult tortoises, thereby limiting their exposure to the pathogen. These findings may have broader implications for modeling horizontally transmitted diseases in other species with limited parental care and emphasize the importance of incorporating animal behavior parameters into disease transmission studies to better characterize the host-pathogen dynamics.

Detection of specific antibody responses to vaccination in variable flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus).

Megachiropteran bats are biologically important both as endangered species and reservoirs for emerging human pathogens. Reliable detection of antibodies to specific pathogens in bats is thus epidemiologically critical. Eight variable flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus) were immunized with 2,4-dinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (DNP-BSA). Each bat received monthly inoculations for 2 months. Affinity-purified IgG was used for production of polyclonal and monoclonal anti-variable flying fox IgG antibodies. ELISA and western blot analysis were used to monitor immune responses and for assessment of polyclonal and monoclonal antibody species cross-reactivity. Protein G, polyclonal antibodies, and monoclonal antibodies detected specific anti-DNP antibody responses in immunized variable flying foxes, with protein G being the most sensitive, followed by monoclonal antibodies and then polyclonal antibodies. While the polyclonal antibody was found to cross-react well against IgG of all bat species tested, some non-specific background was observed. The monoclonal antibody was found to cross-react well against IgG of six other species in the genus Pteropus and to cross-react less strongly against IgG from Eidolon helvum or Phyllostomus hastatus. Protein G distinguished best between vaccinated and unvaccinated bats, and these results validate the use of protein G for detection of bat IgG. Monoclonal antibodies developed in this study recognized immunoglobulins from other members of the genus Pteropus well, and may be useful in applications where specific detection of Pteropus IgG is needed.

In vitro susceptibility of sea lion poxvirus to cidofovir.

Parapoxviruses of seals and sea lions are commonly encountered pathogens with zoonotic potential. The antiviral activity of the antiviral compounds isatin-beta-thiosemicarbazone, rifampicin, acyclovir, cidofovir and phosphonoacetic acid against a parapoxvirus (SLPV-1) isolated from a Californian sea lions (Zalophus californianus) was evaluated. Cidofovir was able to reduce virus-induced cytopathic effect of SLPV-1 in confluent monolayers when used in concentrations greater than 2microg/ml. A decreasing virus yield was observed in the presence of increasing concentrations of cidofovir, which confirmed the ability of cidofovir to inhibit SLPV-1 replication. The in vitro efficacy of cidofovir against SLPV-1 indicates the therapeutic potential of cidofovir for the treatment of infections of humans and pinnipeds with parapoxviruses of seals and sea lions. This study confirms the previously proposed therapeutic potential of cidofovir for the treatment of parapoxvirus infections.

Evanescent-wave biosensor for field serodiagnosis of tortoise mycoplasmosis.

Disease has become an increasingly important issue for wildlife management over the past two decades. Adequate surveillance is fundamental for disease prevention and control, thus there is an increasing need for diagnostic assays for wildlife management. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of a field-portable biosensor adapted for rapid detection of specific antibodies in tortoise plasma that reflect a history of exposure to Mycoplasma agassizii, which is an agent of tortoise upper respiratory tract disease. Banked plasma samples were tested in two blinded trials, and the parameters that define the reliability of a diagnostic test were estimated based on externally validated tortoise plasma controls. The mean sensitivity of the biosensor (ability to identify exposed tortoises in the group of all exposed individuals) was 78%; the mean specificity (unexposed individuals with negative test result, out of all unexposed individuals tested) was 73%; the mean positive predictive value (exposed individuals with positive test, out of all individuals with positive test) was 82%; the mean negative predictive value (unexposed individuals with negative test, out of all individuals with negative test) was 68%. In a 15-min field-portable format, the biosensor was able to discriminate between true seropositive (n=34) and true seronegative (n=23) tortoise plasma with overall accuracy of 84%. The goals established for the tortoise population can help managers decide whether potential diagnostic errors should impact management decision-making, and whether the benefits of the field-portable format of the biosensor assay outweigh any potential disadvantages.

Use of baculovirus-expressed glycoprotein H in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay developed to assess exposure to chelonid fibropapillomatosis-associated herpesvirus and its relationship to the prevalence of fibropapillomatosis in sea turtles.

Chelonid fibropapillomatosis-associated herpesvirus (CFPHV) is an alphaherpesvirus believed to cause marine turtle fibropapillomatosis (FP). A serodiagnostic assay was developed for monitoring sea turtle populations for CFPHV exposure. CFPHV glycoprotein H (gH) expressed in recombinant baculovirus was used in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect virus-specific 7S turtle antibodies. Using captive-reared green turtles (Chelonia mydas) with no history of virus exposure as "known negatives" and others with experimentally induced FP as "known positives," the assay had 100% specificity but low sensitivity, as seroconversion was detected in only half of the turtles bearing experimentally induced tumors. Antibodies were detected only in samples collected after cutaneous fibropapillomas appeared, consistent with observations that tumors are significant sites of virion production and antigen expression and the possibility that prolonged/repeated virus shedding may be required for adequate stimulation of 7S antibody responses to gH. Natural routes of infection, however, may produce higher seroconversion rates. High gH antibody seroprevalences ( approximately 80%) were found among wild green turtles in three Florida localities with different FP prevalences, including one site with no history of FP. In addition, all eight loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) tested were seropositive despite FP being uncommon in this species. The possibility that CFPHV infection may be common relative to disease suggests roles for environmental and host factors as modulators of disease expression. Alternatively, the possibility of other antigenically similar herpesviruses present in wild populations cannot be excluded, although antibody cross-reactivity with the lung/eye/trachea disease-associated herpesvirus was ruled out in this study.

Development and validation of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for the detection of immunoglobulin G of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus).

Antibodies directed against species-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) have a broad range of applications in serologic and immunologic research and in the development of clinical assays. Validated anti-IgG antibodies for marine mammal species are in short supply. The objective of this study was to produce and validate antibodies with specificity for IgG of the common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Bottlenose dolphin IgG was purified using protein G. Two mouse monoclonal antibodies and a rabbit polyclonal antibody were developed from mice and rabbits immunized with bottlenose dolphin IgG. The specificity of the monoclonal antibodies and the polyclonal antibody for bottlenose dolphin IgG was first verified by Western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). For further validation, both monoclonal antibodies and the polyclonal antibody were incorporated in an indirect ELISA for the detection of the immune response of bottlenose dolphins to a vaccine antigen. Three bottlenose dolphins were immunized with a commercial Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae vaccine, and serial blood samples were collected from all dolphins for measurement of levels of circulating antibodies. Seroconversion was observed in all 3 dolphins by use of both monoclonal antibodies and the polyclonal antibody. Circulating antibodies were detectable as early as 6 days after immunization in 1 dolphin. Peak antibody levels were detected 14 days after the immunization. The ability to detect seroconversion in all 3 immunized bottlenose dolphins firmly establishes the specificity of the monoclonal antibodies and the polyclonal antibody for IgG of the common bottlenose dolphin.

Improved enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to reveal Mycoplasma agassizii exposure: a valuable tool in the management of environmentally sensitive tortoise populations.

The precarious status of desert (Gopherus agassizii) and gopher (Gopherus polyphemus) tortoises has resulted in research and conservation efforts that include health assessments as a substantial component of management decision-making. Therefore, it is critical that available diagnostic tests for diseases impacting these species undergo rigorous standardization and validation. Since 1992, analysis of exposure of tortoises to Mycoplasma agassizii, an etiological agent of upper respiratory tract disease, has relied on the detection of specific M. agassizii antibody by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We report here substantive refinements in the diagnostic assay and discuss the implications of its use in wildlife conservation and management. The ELISA has been refined to include more stringent quality control measures and has been converted to a clinically more meaningful titer reporting system, consistent with other diagnostic serologic tests. The ELISA results for 5,954 desert and gopher tortoises were plotted, and a subset of these serum samples (n = 90) was used to determine end-point titers, to establish an optimum serum dilution for analyzing samples, and to construct a standard curve. The relationship between titer and A405 was validated using 77 serum samples from known positive (n = 48) and negative (n = 29) control tortoises from prior transmission studies. The Youden index, J, and the optimal cut point, c, were estimated using ELISA results from the 77 control sera. Based on this evaluation, the refinement has substantially improved the performance of the assay (sensitivity of 0.98, specificity of 0.99, and J of 0.98), thus providing a clinically more reliable diagnostic test for this important infection of tortoises.

Pathology and preliminary characterization of a parapoxvirus isolated from a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus).

Cutaneous pox-like lesions are a common complication in the rehabilitation of pinnipeds. However, the exact identity, taxonomy, and host range of pinniped parapoxviruses remain unknown. During a poxvirus outbreak in May 2003 in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) at a marine mammal rehabilitation facility, multiple raised, firm, 1-3-cm skin nodules from the head, neck, and thorax of one sea lion weanling pup that spontaneously died were collected. Histologically, the nodules were characterized by inflammation and necrosis of the dermis and epidermis, acanthosis, and ballooning degeneration of the stratum spinosum. Large, coalescing eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions were observed in the ballooned cells. A parapoxvirus (sea lion poxvirus 1, SLPV-1) was isolated on early passage California sea lion kidney cells inoculated with a tissue homogenate of a skin nodule. The morphology of the virions on electron microscopy was consistent with that of parapoxviruses. Partial sequencing of the genomic region encoding the putative major virion envelope antigen p42K confirmed the assignment of the sea lion poxvirus to the genus Parapoxvirus. Although SLPV-1 is most closely related to the poxvirus of harbor seals of the European North Sea, it is significantly different from orf virus, bovine papular stomatitis virus, pseudocowpox virus and the parapoxvirus of New Zealand red deer.

Seroepidemiology of parapoxvirus infections in captive and free-ranging California sea lions Zalophus californianus.

Cutaneous nodular lesions caused by parapoxvirus infections are commonly observed in stranded pinnipeds following their arrival at rehabilitation facilities. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed and validated to determine exposure to parapoxviruses in California sea lions Zalophus californianus in captivity and in the wild. The diagnostic performance of this assay was evaluated using receiver-operating characteristic analysis. At a selected cut-off value, the calculated sensitivity was 100% (95% CI = 86 to 100%) and the specificity was 100% (95% CI = 87 to 100%). Analysis of sera collected from 26 affected sea lions during various stages of the disease revealed anti-parapoxvirus antibodies in all affected sea lions prior to the development of cutaneous pox lesions. This indicated that previous exposure to a parapoxvirus does not confer protection against clinical disease. In at least 7 cases, exposure to the virus occurred during hospitalization. Analysis of paired sera from 74 unaffected sea lions indicated subclinical infections in at least 3 animals. Finally, the prevalence of anti-parapoxviral antibodies in 761 free-ranging California sea lions captured and tested was 91% (95% CI = 89 to 93%). This indicated that infection with a parapoxvirus is a common occurrence in the wild and that the release of captive sea lions infected with parapoxvirus into the wild should not increase the risk of a parapoxvirus outbreak in free-ranging sea lions.

Parapoxviruses of seals and sea lions make up a distinct subclade within the genus Parapoxvirus.

Poxviruses of seals and sea lions have been tentatively identified as both orthopoxviruses and parapoxviruses, but their exact identity remained unconfirmed. Here, poxviral DNA sequences were generated from 39 clinical cases and compared to sequences from earlier poxvirus isolates from seals (Phocidae) and sea lions (Otariidae). Six genetically distinct poxvirus strains were detected, of which three were previously unrecognized. All detected strains were closely related to the parapoxviruses, confirming their classification as members of the genus Parapoxvirus. A phylogenetic analysis showed that pinniped parapoxviruses form a monophyletic group within the genus Parapoxvirus. Parapoxviruses from Atlantic pinnipeds were phylogenetically distant from those of Pacific pinnipeds. Parapoxviruses from phocids and otariids that inhabit the same geographical region were also phylogenetically distant, suggesting that parapoxviruses are not commonly transmitted between free-ranging phocids and otariids. However, one strain was detected in two otariid species, suggesting that pinniped parapoxviruses are capable of infecting multiple species within a phylogenetic family.

Induction of vitellogenesis by estradiol-17beta and development of enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays to quantify plasma vitellogenin levels in green turtles (Chelonia mydas).

Treatment of juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) with estradiol-17beta resulted in the induction of a 200 kDa plasma protein, consistent with vitellogenin (Vtg). The N-terminal 15 amino acids of the anion exchange purified protein shared sequence homologies with vitellogenins of several vertebrate species. Rabbit antiserum raised against purified Vtg recognized the plasma protein as well as several yolk proteins. Monoclonal antibody (Mab) HL1248, produced by inoculating mice with turtle yolk granules, showed specificity for plasma Vtg as well as a set of yolk proteins 120, 82, 43 and 32 kDa in size. The N-terminal 22 amino acids of the 43 kDa yolk protein was similar to the lipovitellin I subunit of Vtg of several vertebrate species. The peptide mass map of the 82 kDa yolk protein shared enough ions with that of purified plasma Vtg to support the conclusion that this protein was derived from plasma Vtg. Taken together, these results validate the specificity of Mab HL1248 for Vtg. Using purified Vtg concentration standards, competition and antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays (ELISAs) were shown to quantitatively detect Vtg in green turtle plasma. Pre-induced plasma of juvenile turtles had Vtg levels of 2-4 micrograms/ml whereas post-estradiol exposure samples had 38-40 mg/ml. The plasma Vtg concentration of a nesting female turtle was 4.6 mg/ml, approximately 20-fold higher than that of a non-nesting adult female. The antigen capture ELISA will be useful in population studies of this endangered species, to detect vitellogenesis in females that will nest in a given year and to detect inappropriate Vtg levels in turtles exposed to xenoestrogens.

Use of an ELISA for detection of antibody responses in Argentine boa constrictors (Boa constrictor occidentalis).

OBJECTIVE: To develop mouse monoclonal and rabbit polyclonal antibodies against immunoglobulin of Argentine boa constrictors and to demonstrate the ability of these reagents to detect antibody responses in boa constrictors by use of an ELISA and western blot analysis. ANIMALS: Two 3-year-old Argentine boa constrictors. Procedure-Boa constrictors were immunized with 2,4-dinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (DNP-BSA). Each snake received biweekly inoculations of 250 microg of DNP-BSA (half SC, half IP) for a total of 6 inoculations followed by monthly inoculations for 3 months. Preimmune blood samples were collected. Subsequently, blood was collected immediately prior to each booster inoculation. Anti-DNP antibodies were isolated from immune plasma samples by affinity chromatography. Affinity-purified boa anti-DNP immunoglobulin was used for production of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. An ELISA and western blot analysis were used to monitor immune responses, for purification of boa anti-DNP immunoglobulin, and for assessment of polyclonal and monoclonal antibody specificity. RESULTS: A 6-fold increase in optical density (OD405) of immune boa plasma, compared with preimmune plasma, was detected by the polyclonal antibody, and a 12- and 15-fold increase was detected by monoclonal antibodies HL1787 and HL1785, respectively, between weeks 4 and 8. Results of western blot analysis confirmed anti-DNP antibody activity in immunized boa plasma and in affinity column eluates. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies detected specific anti-DNP antibody responses in immunized boas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies recognized boa constrictor immunoglobulin. These antibodies may be useful in serologic tests to determine exposure of snakes to pathogens.

Identification and expression of immunogenic proteins of a disease-associated marine turtle herpesvirus.

Herpesviruses are associated with several diseases of marine turtles, including lung-eye-trachea disease (LETD) and fibropapillomatosis. Two approaches were used to identify immunodominant antigens of LETV, the LETD-associated herpesvirus. The first approach targeted glycoprotein B, which is known to be immunogenic and neutralizing in other species. The second strategy identified LETV proteins recognized on Western blots by antibodies in immune green turtle plasma. A 38-kDa protein was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, sequenced, and identified as a scaffolding protein encoded by the overlapping open reading frames of UL26 and UL26.5. Glycoprotein B and the scaffolding protein were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The expressed proteins were recognized on Western blots by antibodies in immune green turtle plasma. Phylogenetic studies based on UL26, DNA polymerase, and glycoprotein B revealed that LETV clusters with the alphaherpesviruses.