Differences in fairness and trust between lean and corpulent men.

BACKGROUND: Employment disparities are known to exist between lean and corpulent people, for example, corpulent people are less likely to be hired and get lower wages. The reasons for these disparities between weight groups are not completely understood. We hypothesize (i) that economic decision making differs between lean and corpulent subjects, (ii) that these differences are influenced by peoples' blood glucose concentrations and (iii) by the body weight of their opponents. METHODS: A total of 20 lean and 20 corpulent men were examined, who performed a large set of economic games (ultimatum game, trust game and risk game) under euglycemic and hypoglycemic conditions induced by the glucose clamp technique. RESULTS: In the ultimatum game, lean men made less fair decisions and offered 16% less money than corpulent men during euglycemia (P=0.042). During hypoglycemia, study participants of both weight groups accepted smaller amounts of money than during euglycemia (P=0.031), indicating that a lack of energy makes subjects to behave more like a Homo Economicus. In the trust game, lean men allocated twice as much money to lean than to corpulent trustees during hypoglycemia (P<0.001). Risk-seeking behavior did not differ between lean and corpulent men. CONCLUSION: Our data show that economic decision making is affected by both, the body weight of the participants and the body weight of their opponents, and that blood glucose concentrations should be taken into consideration when analyzing economic decision making. When relating these results to the working environment, the weight bias in economic decision making may be also relevant for employment disparities.

Role of γ-aminobutyric acid signalling in the attenuation of counter-regulatory hormonal responses after antecedent hypoglycaemia in healthy men.

The attenuated counter-regulatory response to hypoglycaemia after antecedent hypoglycaemic episodes has been observed in animals to be associated with an increase in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) signalling. We therefore tested the hypothesis that the pharmacological suppression of GABAergic activity during a repeated hypoglycaemic episode enhances counter-regulatory responses. Fourteen healthy men participated in two experimental sessions each comprising three insulin-induced hypoglycaemic episodes. Before the third hypoglycaemic episode, participants received the GABA-antagonistic drug modafinil (200 mg orally) and placebo, respectively. In the placebo condition, the secretion of norepinephrine, adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol and growth hormone, and the perception of neuroglycopenic symptoms were attenuated during the third as compared with the first hypoglycaemic episode (each p < 0.05). Modafinil reversed this effect for the noradrenergic response (p < 0.05), while not significantly altering the attenuation of other hormonal responses and symptom perception (p > 0.3). Our findings indicate that increased GABAergic transmission could contribute to aspects of the attenuated counter-regulatory response after recurrent hypoglycaemia in humans.

NMDA receptor blockade by memantine does not prevent adaptation to recurrent hypoglycaemia in healthy men.

AIMS: Recurrent hypoglycaemia leads to an attenuation of hypoglycaemic symptoms and hormonal counterregulatory responses. This phenomenon poses a severe problem in the treatment of patients with diabetes mellitus, but the underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms are unclear. On the basis of animal experimental findings, we hypothesized that counterregulatory attenuation represents a basic adaptive learning process relying on synaptic long-term potentiation or depression. If so, attenuation should be prevented by blocking glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. METHODS: Sixteen healthy young men participated in two conditions, separated by 4 weeks. Participants received the NMDA antagonist memantine over 5 days (15 mg/day) in one condition and placebo in the other one. After 3 days of drug administration, participants underwent two hypoglycaemic clamps on day 4 and another one on day 5. We assessed blood concentrations of counterregulatory hormones (cortisol, ACTH, epinephrine, norepinephrine, growth hormone and glucagon) as well as subjective symptoms of hypoglycaemia and word-list recall as an indicator of short-term memory. RESULTS: Counterregulatory responses of all hormones as well as neuroglycopenic and autonomic symptom ratings showed robust attenuation following the third as compared to the first hypoglycaemia (p < 0.05). NMDA receptor antagonization by memantine impaired memory function but did not alter any neuroendocrine measure of counterregulatory attenuation (p > 0.17). CONCLUSIONS: Attenuation of the endocrine as well as symptomatic counterregulatory response to recurrent hypoglycaemia is not prevented by the NMDA receptor blocker memantine. Our results do not support the view that adaptation to repeated hypoglycaemia relies on NMDA receptor-mediated plastic processes involving long-term potentiation or depression.

Blocking AMPA receptor signalling by caroverine infusion does not affect counter-regulation of hypoglycaemia in healthy men.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Glutamatergic pathways are assumed to play a critical role in the hormonal stress response to hypoglycaemia. In rats, glutamate signalling at the amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazol propionate (AMPA) receptor contributes to hormone release induced by behavioural stressors. We hypothesised that blocking the AMPA receptor by caroverine in healthy men would impair their perception of neuroglycopenia and thereby diminish hormonal counter-regulation as well as symptoms of hypoglycaemia, as a model of stress. METHODS: In a balanced double-blind study, two hypoglycaemic clamp sessions (mean blood glucose 2.4 mmol/l for 50 min) were performed in ten healthy men during intravenous administration of 80 mg caroverine or placebo. We assessed concentrations of counter-regulatory hormones as well as subjective symptoms related to hypoglycaemia. RESULTS: AMPA receptor antagonisation by caroverine did not influence the perception of neuroglycopenic and autonomic hypoglycaemia-associated symptoms (p > 0.39 for all). Notwithstanding, caroverine did increase basal and counter-regulatory glucagon secretion (p < 0.002) and slightly enhanced counter-regulatory growth hormone concentrations (p = 0.07). Counter-regulatory release of ACTH, cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) did not differ between conditions (p > 0.11 for all). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Antagonising AMPA receptor signalling by caroverine infusion failed to diminish and even slightly amplified counter-regulatory hormone release during hypoglycaemia in healthy men. The discrepancy with previous findings in rats may be due to different dosages or administration routes and calls for further investigations on the role of AMPA receptor signalling in hypoglycaemia counter-regulation in humans.

Targeted inactivation of the type VII collagen gene (Col7a1) in mice results in severe blistering phenotype: a model for recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa.

Dystrophic forms of epidermolysis bullosa (DEB) are associated with mutations in the type VII collagen gene (Col7a1) which encodes the major component of anchoring fibrils. To develop a DEB animal model, type VII collagen deficient mice were generated by targeted homologous recombination. The targeting vector replaced exons 46-69 of Col7a1 with the neomycin-resistance gene, in reverse transcriptional orientation, resulting in elimination of most of the collagenous domain 1. Col7a1 heterozygous (+/-) mice were phenotypically normal. Mating of Col7a1 +/- mice revealed that Col7a1 null (-/-) mice, which were born with extensive cutaneous blistering, died during the first two weeks of life probably due to complications arising from the blistering. Transmission electron microscopy revealed subepidermal blistering below the lamina densa and absence of anchoring fibrils. Immunohistochemical staining with anti-human type VII collagen antibody stained the dermal-epidermal junction in control mice, but did not stain the skin of Col7a1 null mice. Collectively, the DEB mice recapitulate the clinical, genetic, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of recessive DEB in humans. These mice provide an animal model to study the pathomechanisms of DEB and serve as a system to test therapeutic approaches, including gene replacement, towards the cure of this devastating skin disease.

Nuclear factor-kappa B mediates TNF-alpha inhibitory effect on alpha 2(I) collagen (COL1A2) gene transcription in human dermal fibroblasts.

Among its plethora of activities as an inflammatory mediator, TNF-alpha has potent regulatory control on extracellular matrix production and degradation. Earlier studies have documented that TNF-alpha inhibits type I collagen gene (COL1A2) expression at the transcriptional level, but the characterization of the transcription factors involved has been elusive. In the present study, using transient cell transfection of human dermal fibroblasts with a battery of 5' end deletion/chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter gene constructs, we have characterized the TNF-alpha response element of the COL1A2 promoter. The TNF-alpha response element was attributed to a specific region that comprises noncanonical activator protein-1 (AP-1) (CGAGTCA) and NF-kappa B (AGAGTTTCCC) binding sites. TNF-alpha effect was eliminated by a 2-bp substitution mutation in the NF-kappa B1 binding half site of the NF-kappa B cis element. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) showed that recombinant human NF-kappa B heterodimers as well as NF-kappa B1 and RelA homodimers, but not AP-1, were capable of binding this element. Further, EMSA with human fibroblast nuclear extracts demonstrated enhanced binding of a single, specific complex within 5 min of TNF-alpha stimulation, which reached a plateau by 1 h and was not affected by preincubation of cells with cycloheximide. Gel supershift assays identified the complex as the NF-kappa B (p50/p65) heterodimer, whereas Abs to nuclear factor of activated T cells (NF-AT) and Jun family members failed to recognize the complex. These data suggest that in fibroblasts TNF-alpha activates and initiates the nuclear translocation of NF-kappa B that binds a divergent NF-kappa B element and plays a critical role in the observed inhibition of alpha 2(I) collagen gene transcription.

IkappaBalpha deficiency results in a sustained NF-kappaB response and severe widespread dermatitis in mice.

The ubiquitous transcription factor NF-kappaB is an essential component in signal transduction pathways, in inflammation, and in the immune response. NF-kappaB is maintained in an inactive state in the cytoplasm by protein-protein interaction with IkappaBalpha. Upon stimulation, rapid degradation of IkappaBalpha allows nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB. To study the importance of IkappaBalpha in signal transduction, IkappaBalpha-deficient mice were derived by gene targeting. Cultured fibroblasts derived from IkappaBalpha-deficient embryos exhibit levels of NF-kappaB1, NF-kappaB2, RelA, c-Rel, and IkappaBbeta similar to those of wild-type fibroblasts. A failure to increase nuclear levels of NF-kappaB indicates that cytoplasmic retention of NF-kappaB may be compensated for by other IkappaB proteins. Treatment of wild-type cells with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) resulted in rapid, transient nuclear localization of NF-kappaB. IkappaBalpha-deficient fibroblasts are also TNF-alpha responsive, but nuclear localization of NF-kappaB is prolonged, thus demonstrating that a major irreplaceable function Of IkappaBalpha is termination of the NF-kappaB response. Consistent with these observations, and with IkappaBalpha and NF-kappaB's role in regulating inflammatory and immune responses, is the normal development Of IkappaBalpha-deficient mice. However, growth ceases 3 days after birth and death usually occurs at 7 to 10 days of age. An increased percentage of monocytes/macrophages was detected in spleen cells taken from 5-, 7-, and 9-day-old pups. Death is accompanied by severe widespread dermatitis and increased levels of TNF-alpha mRNA in the skin.

Functional elements DE2A, DE2B, and DE1A and the TATA box are required for activity of the chicken alpha A-crystallin gene in transfected lens epithelial cells.

alpha A-crystallin is an abundant soluble protein of the vertebrate eye lens. In addition to the TATA box, four positive cis-regulatory elements of the chicken alpha A-crystallin gene have been identified by linker scanning mutagenesis, DNase I footprinting, and gel mobility shift experiments. The regulatory elements described here have been named DE2A (at positions -144 to -134), DE2B (at positions -128 to -118), and DE1A (at positions -114 to -103). DE2A and DE2B form a dyad of symmetry between positions -141 and -118 (5'-AGACTGTCAT....AGGTCAGTCT-3'), consistent with the close similarity in the mobility of complexes formed with lens nuclear proteins by these two elements. Mutations in DE2A, DE2B, and DE1A leading to loss of promoter activity using the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter gene transfected into primary embryonic chicken lens epithelial cells resulted in a corresponding loss in the ability to compete for complex formation with lens nuclear proteins in gel mobility shift assays. Mutation of the alpha A-CRYBP1-like site (-67/-57), necessary for function of the mouse alpha A-crystallin promoter, did not affect the activity of the chicken promoter. The DNase I footprinting and gel mobility shift experiments confirmed the previously noted binding of nuclear proteins to a dyad of symmetry at positions -153 to -140. In contrast to DE2A, DE2B, and DE1A, mutagenesis and gel mobility shift experiments failed to correlate function and protein binding for the -153/-140 dyad. DE2A, DE2B, and DE1A agree well with the regulatory elements alpha CE1 (-162/-134), alpha CE3 (-135/-121), and alpha CE2 (-119/-99) (Matsuo, I., and Yasuda, K. (1992) Nucleic Acids Res. 20, 3701-3712) for this gene. The present results suggest, however, that the lens enhancer activity of alpha CE1 is due to the sequence -141/-134, which forms the upper half of the DE2A/DE2B dyad of symmetry, rather than the -153/-140 dyad as previously suspected.

Conservation of mouse alpha A-crystallin promoter activity in chicken lens epithelial cells.

Previous transfection experiments have shown that 162 base pairs (bp) of the 5' flanking sequence of the chicken alpha A-crystallin gene are required for promoter activity in primary chicken lens epithelial cells (PLE), while only 111 bp of the 5' flanking sequence are needed for activity of the mouse alpha A-crystallin promoter in transfected chicken PLE cells or in a SV40 T-antigen-transformed transfected mouse lens epithelial cell line (alpha TN4-1). The effect of site-directed mutations covering positions -111 to -34 of the mouse alpha A-crystallin promoter fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene was compared in transfected chicken PLE cells and mouse alpha TN4-1 cells; selected mutations were also examined in a nontransformed rabbit lens epithelial cell line (N/N1003A). In general, the same mutations reduced promoter activity in the transfected lens cells from all three species, although differences were noted. The mutations severely affected regions -111/-106 and -69/-40 regions in all the transfected cells examined; by contrast, mutations at positions -105/-99 and -87/-70 had a somewhat greater effect in the chicken PLE than the mouse alpha TN4-1 cells, while mutations of the -93/-88 sequence reduced expression in the alpha TN4-1 but not the PLE cells. A partial cDNA with sequence similarity to alpha A-CRYPB1 of the mouse has been isolated from a chicken lens library; mouse alpha A-CRYBP1 is a putative transcription factor which binds to the -66/-55 sequence of the mouse alpha A-crystallin promoter.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

I-Rel: a novel rel-related protein that inhibits NF-kappa B transcriptional activity.

The NF-kappa B transcription factor complex is comprised of two subunits, p50 and p65, that share significant homology to the rel oncogene. We have isolated a cDNA encoding a novel 66-kD rel-related protein, designated I-Rel. Unlike other rel-related proteins, I-Rel does not interact with DNA. I-Rel forms heterodimers with p50, however, and greatly attenuates its DNA-binding activity--an effect probably resulting from the presence of a domain inhibitory to DNA binding present within the 121 amino-terminal residues of I-Rel. In contrast, I-Rel does not associate with p65. Transfection experiments demonstrate that I-Rel suppresses NF-kappa B-induced transcription, probably through its association with p50. Expression of I-Rel mRNA is induced by mitogenic stimulation and accumulates after the appearance of p50 transcripts. Our findings suggest that p50 and I-Rel are components of a feedback pathway where expression of I-Rel may modulate indirectly the expression of genes responsive to the NF-kappa B transcription factor complex.

Identification of a naturally occurring transforming variant of the p65 subunit of NF-kappa B.

Transcription factor NF-kappa B comprises two proteins, p50 and p65, that have sequence similarity to the v-rel oncogene. In primary hematopoietic cell populations an alternatively spliced form of NF-kappa B p65 mRNA was observed that encoded a protein designated p65 delta. Expression of the p65 delta cDNA in Rat-1 fibroblasts resulted in focus formation, anchorage-independent growth in soft agar, and tumor formation in athymic nude mice, effects not obtained with expression of p65 or a p65 delta mutant that contains a disruption within the transcriptional activation domain. Thus, p65 delta, which associated weakly and interfered with DNA binding by p65, may sequester an essential limiting regulatory factor or factors required for NF-kappa B function.

DNA binding factors which interact with the Sp1 site of the chicken delta 1-crystallin promoter are developmentally regulated.

Transcription of the delta 1-crystallin gene is developmentally regulated in the embryonic chicken lens. Previous work defined a positive transcription regulatory element between positions -120 and -43 of the delta 1-crystallin promoter. This region contains a putative Sp1 binding site (-78 to -71), adjacent to a CAAT box (-70 to -67). Gel retardation assays using lens nuclear extracts revealed two protein-DNA complexes which involved the Sp1 site. The formation of the complexes increased from day 6 to day 11 of embryogenesis (period of lens organogenesis) peaked between days 11 and 15, then decreased in a non-parallel manner until hatching (day 21). A point mutation in the Sp1 binding site of the delta 1-crystallin promoter abolished formation of one of the complexes (complex 1, slower in mobility), while point mutations in the CAAT box had no effect on the formation of either complex. Studies using purified Sp1 protein and increasing amounts of embryonic chicken lens nuclear extracts showed cooperativity in the formation of both complexes, more remarkable with complex 1.

Functional characterization of the NF-kappa B p65 transcriptional activator and an alternatively spliced derivative.

The NF-kappa B transcription factor complex is composed of two proteins, designated p50 and p65, both having considerable homology to the product of the rel oncogene. We present evidence that the p65 subunit is a potent transcriptional activator in the apparent absence of the p50 subunit, consistent with in vitro results demonstrating that p65 can interact with DNA on its own. To identify the minimal activation domain, chimeric fusion proteins between the DNA binding domain of the yeast transcriptional activator protein GAL4 and regions of the carboxy terminus of p65 were constructed, and their transcriptional activity was assessed by using a GAL4 upstream activation sequence-driven promoter-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase fusion. This analysis suggests that the boundaries of the activation domain lie between amino acids 415 and 550. Moreover, single amino acid changes within residues 435 to 459 greatly diminished activation. Similar to other activation domains, this region contains a leucine zipper-like motif as well as an overall net negative charge. To identify those residues essential for DNA binding, we made use of a naturally occurring derivative of p65, lacking residues 222 to 231 (hereafter referred to as p65 delta), and produced via an alternative splice site. Gel mobility shift analysis using bacterially expressed p65, p65 delta, and various mutants indicates that residues 222 to 231 are important for binding to kappa B DNA. Coimmunoprecipitation analysis suggests that these residues likely contribute to the multimerization function required for homomeric complex formation or heteromeric complex formation with p50 in that no association of p65 delta with itself or with p50 was evident. However, p65 delta was able to form weak heteromeric complexes with p65 that were greatly reduced in their ability to bind DNA. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that subtle changes within the proposed multimerization domain can elicit different effects with the individual Rel-related proteins and that a potential role of p65 delta may be to negatively regulate NF-kappa B function through formation of nonfunctional heteromeric complexes.

Lens protein gene expression: alpha-crystallins and MIP.

The crystallin genes encode the major soluble proteins of the lens. Some of the crystallin genes are expressed exclusively in the lens while others are also expressed in different tissues. The two alpha-crystallin genes, alpha A and alpha B, differ in their tissue specificity. Transcription of the alpha A-crystallin gene occurs only in the lens, while the alpha B-crystallin gene is also expressed in other tissues, including heart, skeletal muscle, kidney, lung and brain. MIP (also called MP26), the major intrinsic protein of the lens fiber membranes, is also expressed exclusively in the lens. Correct expression of both alpha-crystallin and MIP are required for normal lens function. Here we review our studies on the molecular basis of expression of the alpha-crystallin and MIP genes in the lens. The 5' flanking sequences containing the initiation site of transcription of the alpha A-crystallin, alpha B-crystallin and MIP genes were fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene, and the expression of this reporter gene was studied in transient assays and transgenic mice. DNA sequences flanking the 5' end of the alpha A-crystallin gene contain regulatory elements responsible for the lens-specific expression and developmental regulation of the CAT gene in transgenic mice. Interestingly, although some of the murine alpha A-crystallin regulatory sequences are conserved in the human and chicken genes, different functional regulatory elements appear to control the expression of the murine and chicken alpha A-crystallin genes. The 5' flanking sequence of the alpha B-crystallin gene preferentially directs expression of the CAT gene to the lens and to skeletal muscle. Different regulatory elements of the alpha B-crystallin gene appear to be responsible for its transcription in various tissues. The 5' flanking sequence of the MIP gene also contains regulatory elements that direct expression of the CAT gene to lens cells; these sequences are not functional in transfected non-lens cells and are different from the cis regulatory elements controlling alpha-crystallin gene expression. The multiplicity of cis-regulatory elements controlling the transcription of these three genes indicates the complexity of the mechanisms that regulate gene expression in the lens.

Species-specific lens activation of the thymidine kinase promoter by a single copy of the mouse alpha A-CRYBP1 site and loss of tissue specificity by multimerization.

One copy of the mouse alpha A-crystallin gene alpha A-CRYBP1 site activated the thymidine kinase (tk) promoter in a mouse lens epithelial cell line but not in primary chicken lens cells; multiple copies further activated the tk promoter and extended expression to fibroblasts, B cells, and chicken lens cultures. The loss of lens specificity by multimerization may place selective constraints on the number of alpha A-CRYBP1 sites in the alpha A-crystallin promoter.

Discrimination between bacteriophage T3 and T7 promoters by the T3 and T7 RNA polymerases depends primarily upon a three base-pair region located 10 to 12 base-pairs upstream from the start site.

The bacteriophage T3 and T7 RNA polymerases are closely related, yet are highly specific for their own promoter sequences. To understand the basis of this specificity, T7 promoter variant that contain substitutions of T3-specific base-pairs at one or more positions within the T7 promoter consensus sequence were synthesized and cloned. Template competition assays between variant and consensus promoters demonstrate that the primary determinants of promoter specificity are located in the region from -10 to -12, and that the base-pair at -11 is of particular importance. Changing this base-pair from G.C, which is normally present in T7 promoters, to C.G, which is found at this position in T3 promoters, prevented utilization by the T7 RNA polymerase and simultaneously enabled transcription from the variant T7 promoter by the T3 enzyme. Substitution of T7 base-pairs with T3 base-pairs at other positions where the two consensus sequences diverge affected the overall efficiency with which the variant promoter was utilized by the T7 RNA polymerase, but these changes were not sufficient to permit recognition by the T3 RNA polymerase. Switching the -11 base-pair in the T3 promoter consensus to the T7 base-pair prevented utilization by the T3 RNA polymerase, but did not allow the T3 variant promoter to be utilized by the T7 RNA polymerase. This probably reflects a greater specificity of the T7 RNA polymerase for base-pairs at other positions where the promoter sequences differ, most notably at -15. The magnitude of the effects of base substitutions in the T7 promoter on promoter strength (-11C much greater than -10C greater than -12A) correlates with the affinity of the T7 polymerase for the promoter variants, suggesting that the discrimination of the phage RNA polymerases for their promoters is mediated primarily at the level of DNA binding, rather than at the level of initiation.

Tissue-specific expression of the chicken alpha A-crystallin gene in cultured lens epithelia and transgenic mice.

The present experiments show that the single gene for the lens-specific protein alpha A-crystallin of chickens and mice uses a different subset of cis- and trans-acting regulatory elements for expression in transfected embryonic chicken lens epithelial cells. A chicken alpha A-crystallin-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) fusion gene required 162 base pairs whereas the murine alpha A-crystallin-CAT fusion gene required only 111 base pairs of 5'-flanking sequences for efficient tissue-specific expression in the transfected chicken lens cells. Gel retardation and competition experiments were performed using embryonic chicken lens nuclear extract and oligodeoxynucleotides identical to the 5'-flanking region of the chicken (-170/-111) and murine (-111/-88 and -88/-55) alpha A-crystallin gene. The results indicated that these homologous promoters use different nuclear factors for function. Methylation interference analysis identified a dyad of symmetry (CTGGTTCCCACCAG) at position -153 to -140 in the chicken alpha A-crystallin promoter which binds one or more lens nuclear factors. Gel mobility shift experiments using nuclear extracts of brain, reticulocytes, and muscle of embryonic chickens or HeLa cells suggested that the factor(s) binding to the chicken alpha A-crystallin gene promoter sequences are not lens specific. Despite differences in the functional and protein-binding properties of the alpha A-crystallin gene promoter of chickens and mice, expression of the chicken alpha A-crystallin-CAT fusion gene in transgenic mice was lens specific, consistent with a common underlying mechanism for expression of the alpha A-crystallin gene in chickens and mice.

Abortive initiation by bacteriophage T3 and T7 RNA polymerases under conditions of limiting substrate.

Initiation of RNA synthesis by the phage polymerases is abortive if the concentration of pyrimidine triphosphates is limiting. Under abortive initiation conditions the polymerases repeatedly initiate transcription but produce ribooligonucleotides that terminate just prior to the first occurrence of the limiting substrate. Abortive initiation is most severe if the limiting substrate occurs within the first 8-12 nucleotides of the nascent RNA chain and is particularly evident when UMP is limiting. The formation of stable elongation complexes (as determined by gel retardation experiments) occurs after the synthesis of an RNA product 8-12 nucleotides in length.

Sequences of three promoters for the bacteriophage SP6 RNA polymerase.

Fragments of SP6 DNA generated by cleavage with Hpa II or Taq I were cloned into the Cla I site of pBR322 and the recombinant plasmids were screened for the presence of SP6 promoter activity by transcription in vitro with purified SP6 RNA polymerase. Three plasmids having promoter activity and small inserts of SP6 DNA were characterized. Hybridization studies showed that all three cloned promoters arose from different regions of the SP6 genome. Comparison of the consensus promoter sequence (5' ATTTAGGtgGACACTATAGAAGgaG 3') with the consensus sequences of promoters recognized by the T3 and T7 RNA polymerases reveals a common core sequence (5'-CACTA-3') extending from -7 to -3, as well as other features that may be important in selective promoter recognition by the phage RNA polymerases.

Cloning and expression of the bacteriophage T3 RNA polymerase gene.

The gene that encodes the RNA polymerase of bacteriophage T3 (gene 1) has been cloned into a pBR322 derivative under the control of an inducible lacUV5 promoter. Large quantities of the protein are synthesized after induction of cells that carry this plasmid. RNA polymerase purified from these overproducing cells selectively initiates transcription from T3 promoter sequences as demonstrated by transcription of a dual promoter plasmid that carries both T3 and T7 promoters. Cells that carry the T3 RNA polymerase gene can complement amber mutants of T3 that are defective in gene 1 but not gene 1 amber mutants of T7, and vice versa; this experiment demonstrates the specificity of these enzymes in vivo.