Comparison of the oncolytic activity of a replication-competent and a replication-deficient herpes simplex virus 1.

In 2015, the oncolytic herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) T-VEC (talimogene laherparepvec) was approved for intratumoral injection in non-resectable malignant melanoma. To determine whether viral replication is required for oncolytic activity, we compared replication-deficient HSV-1 d106S with replication-competent T-VEC. High infectious doses of HSV-1 d106S killed melanoma (n = 10), head-and-neck squamous cell carcinoma (n = 11), and chondrosarcoma cell lines (n = 2) significantly faster than T-VEC as measured by MTT metabolic activity, while low doses of T-VEC were more effective over time. HSV-1 d106S and, to a lesser extent T-VEC, triggered caspase-dependent early apoptosis as shown by pan-caspase inhibition and specific induction of caspases 3/7, 8, and 9. HSV-1 d106S induced a higher ratio of apoptosis-inducing infected cell protein (ICP) 0 to apoptosis-blocking ICP6 than T-VEC. T-VEC was oncolytic for an extended period of time as viral replication continued, which could be partially blocked by the antiviral drug aciclovir. High doses of T-VEC, but not HSV-1 d106S, increased interferon-ß mRNA as part of the intrinsic immune response. When markers of immunogenic cell death were assessed, ATP was released more efficiently in the context of T-VEC than HSV-1 d106S infection, whereas HMGB1 was induced comparatively well. Overall, the early oncolytic effect on three different tumour entities was stronger with the non-replicative strain, while the replication-competent virus elicited a stronger innate immune response and more pronounced immunogenic cell death.

Neuronal miR-9 promotes HSV-1 epigenetic silencing and latency by repressing Oct-1 and Onecut family genes.

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) latent infection entails repression of viral lytic genes in neurons. By functional screening using luciferase-expressing HSV-1, we identify ten neuron-specific microRNAs potentially repressing HSV-1 neuronal replication. Transfection of miR-9, the most active candidate from the screen, decreases HSV-1 replication and gene expression in Neuro-2a cells. Ectopic expression of miR-9 from lentivirus or recombinant HSV-1 suppresses HSV-1 replication in male primary mouse neurons in culture and mouse trigeminal ganglia in vivo, and reactivation from latency in the primary neurons. Target prediction and validation identify transcription factors Oct-1, a known co-activator of HSV transcription, and all three Onecut family members as miR-9 targets. Knockdown of ONECUT2 decreases HSV-1 yields in Neuro-2a cells. Overexpression of each ONECUT protein increases HSV-1 replication in Neuro-2a cells, human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons, and primary mouse neurons, and accelerates reactivation from latency in the mouse neurons. Mutagenesis, ChIP-seq, RNA-seq, ChIP-qPCR and ATAC-seq results suggest that ONECUT2 can nonspecifically bind to viral genes via its CUT domain, globally stimulate viral gene transcription, reduce viral heterochromatin and enhance the accessibility of viral chromatin. Thus, neuronal miR-9 promotes viral epigenetic silencing and latency by targeting multiple host transcription factors important for lytic gene activation.

Sp1 facilitates continued HSV-1 gene expression in the absence of key viral transactivators.

Productive replication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) relies upon a well-ordered transcriptional cascade flowing from immediate-early (IE) to early (E) to late (L) gene products. While several virus-encoded transcriptional activators are involved in this process, IE and E gene promoters also contain multiple binding sites for the ubiquitously expressed cellular transcription factor Sp1. Sp1 has been previously implicated in activating HSV-1 gene transcription downstream of these sites, but why Sp1-binding sites are maintained in the promoters of genes activated by virus-encoded activators remains unclear. We hypothesized that Sp1 enables continued HSV-1 transcription and replication when viral transactivators are limited. We used a depletion-based approach in human foreskin fibroblasts to investigate the specific contribution of Sp1 to the initiation and progression of the HSV-1 lytic gene cascade. We found that Sp1 increased viral transcript levels, protein expression, and replication following infection with VP16- or ICP0-deficient viruses but had little to no effect on rescued viruses or during wild-type (WT) HSV-1 infection. Moreover, Sp1 promoted WT virus transcription and replication following interferon treatment of fibroblasts and thus may contribute to viral immune evasion. Interestingly, we observed reduced expression of Sp1 and Sp1-family transcription factors in differentiated sensory neurons compared to undifferentiated cells, suggesting that reduced Sp1 levels may also contribute to HSV-1 latent infection. Overall, these findings indicate that Sp1 can promote HSV-1 gene expression in the absence of key viral transactivators; thus, HSV-1 may use Sp1 to maintain its gene expression and replication under adverse conditions.IMPORTANCEHerpes simplex virus (HSV) is a common human pathogen that actively replicates in the epithelia but can persist for the lifetime of the infected host via a stable, latent infection in neurons. A key feature of the HSV replication cycle is a complex transcriptional program in which virus and host-cell factors coordinate to regulate expression of the viral gene products necessary for continued viral replication. Multiple binding sites for the cellular transcription factor Sp1 are located in the promoters of HSV-1 genes, but how Sp1 binding contributes to transcription and replication of wild-type virus is not fully understood. In this study, we identified a specific role for Sp1 in maintaining HSV-1 gene transcription under adverse conditions, as when virus-encoded transcriptional activators were absent or limited. Preservation of Sp1-binding sites in HSV-1 gene promoters may thus benefit the virus as it navigates diverse cell types and host-cell conditions during infection.

Nuclear interferon-stimulated gene product maintains heterochromatin on the herpes simplex viral genome to limit lytic infection.

Interferons (IFN) are expressed in and secreted from cells in response to virus infection, and they induce the expression of a variety of genes called interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in infected and surrounding cells to block viral infection and limit spread. The mechanisms of action of a number of cytoplasmic ISGs have been well defined, but little is known about the mechanism of action of nuclear ISGs. Constitutive levels of nuclear interferon-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) serve to induce innate signaling and epigenetic silencing of herpes simplex virus (HSV), but only when the HSV infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) E3 ligase, which promotes IFI16 degradation, is inactivated. In this study, we found that following IFN induction, the pool of IFI16 within the infected cell remains high and can restrict wild-type viral gene expression and replication due to both the induced levels of IFI16 and the IFI16-mediated repression of ICP0 levels. Restriction of viral gene expression is achieved by IFI16 promoting the maintenance of heterochromatin on the viral genome, which silences it epigenetically. These results indicate that a nuclear ISG can restrict gene expression and replication of a nuclear DNA virus by maintaining or preventing the removal of repressive heterochromatin associated with the viral genome.

Blockade of innate inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1ß, or IL-6 overcomes virotherapy-induced cancer equilibrium to promote tumor regression.

Cancer therapeutics can lead to immune equilibrium in which the immune response controls tumor cell expansion without fully eliminating the cancer. The factors involved in this equilibrium remain incompletely understood, especially those that would antagonize the anti-tumor immune response and lead to tumor outgrowth. We previously demonstrated that continuous treatment with a non-replicating herpes simplex virus 1 expressing interleukin (IL)-12 induces a state of cancer immune equilibrium highly dependent on interferon-γ. We profiled the IL-12 virotherapy-induced immune equilibrium in murine melanoma, identifying blockade of innate inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), IL-1ß, or IL-6 as possible synergistic interventions. Antibody depletions of each of these cytokines enhanced survival in mice treated with IL-12 virotherapy and helped to overcome equilibrium in some tumors. Single-cell RNA-sequencing demonstrated that blockade of inflammatory cytokines resulted in downregulation of overlapping inflammatory pathways in macrophages, shifting immune equilibrium towards tumor clearance, and raising the possibility that TNFα blockade could synergize with existing cancer immunotherapies.

Herpes simplex virus infected cell protein 8 is required for viral inhibition of the cGAS pathway.

DNA virus infection triggers an antiviral type I interferon (IFN) response in cells that suppresses infection of surrounding cells. Consequently, viruses have evolved mechanisms to inhibit the IFN response for efficient replication. The cellular cGAS protein binds to double-stranded DNA and synthesizes the small molecule cGAMP to initiate DNA-dependent type I IFN production. We showed previously that cGAMP production is relatively low during HSV-1 infection compared to plasmid DNA transfection. Therefore, we hypothesized that HSV-1 produces antagonists of the cGAS DNA sensing pathway. In this study, we found that the HSV-1 ICP8 protein is required for viral inhibition of the cGAS pathway by reducing cGAMP levels stimulated by double-stranded DNA transfection. ICP8 alone inhibited the cGAMP response and may inhibit cGAS action by direct interaction with DNA, cGAS, or other infected cell proteins. Our results reveal another cGAS antiviral pathway inhibitor and highlight the importance of countering IFN for efficient viral replication.

IFNγ is a central node of cancer immune equilibrium.

Tumors in immune equilibrium are held in balance between outgrowth and destruction by the immune system. The equilibrium phase defines the duration of clinical remission and stable disease, and escape from equilibrium remains a major clinical problem. Using a non-replicating HSV-1 vector expressing interleukin-12 (d106S-IL12), we developed a mouse model of therapy-induced immune equilibrium, a phenomenon previously seen only in humans. This immune equilibrium was centrally reliant on interferon-γ (IFNγ). CD8+ T cell direct recognition of MHC class I, perforin/granzyme-mediated cytotoxicity, and extrinsic death receptor signaling such as Fas/FasL were all individually dispensable for equilibrium. IFNγ was critically important and played redundant roles in host and tumor cells such that IFNγ sensing in either compartment was sufficient for immune equilibrium. We propose that these redundant mechanisms of action are integrated by IFNγ to protect from oncogenic or chronic viral threats and establish IFNγ as a central node in therapy-induced immune equilibrium.

CRISPR-Cas9 Expressed in Stably Transduced Cell Lines Promotes Recombination and Selects for Herpes Simplex Virus Recombinants.

Recombinant herpes simplex virus strains can be constructed by several methods, including homologous recombination, bacterial artificial chromosome manipulation, and yeast genetic methods. Homologous recombination may have the advantage of introducing fewer genetic alterations in the viral genome, but the low level of recombinants can make this method more time consuming if there is no screen or selection. In this study we used complementing cell lines that express Cas9 and guide RNAs targeting the parental virus to rapidly generate recombinant viruses. Analysis of the progeny viruses indicated that CRISPR-Cas9 both promoted recombination to increase recombinant viruses and selected against parental viruses in the transfection progeny viruses. This approach can also be used to enrich for recombinants made by any of the current methods.

Replication Compartments of Eukaryotic and Bacterial DNA Viruses: Common Themes Between Different Domains of Host Cells.

Subcellular organization is essential for life. Cells organize their functions into organelles to concentrate their machinery and supplies for optimal efficiency. Likewise, viruses organize their replication machinery into compartments or factories within their host cells for optimal replicative efficiency. In this review, we discuss how DNA viruses that infect both eukaryotic cells and bacteria assemble replication compartments for synthesis of progeny viral DNA and transcription of the viral genome. Eukaryotic DNA viruses assemble replication compartments in the nucleus of the host cell while DNA bacteriophages assemble compartments called phage nuclei in the bacterial cytoplasm. Thus, DNA viruses infecting host cells from different domains of life share common replication strategies.

A virus-specific monocyte inflammatory phenotype is induced by SARS-CoV-2 at the immune-epithelial interface.

Infection by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) provokes a potentially fatal pneumonia with multiorgan failure, and high systemic inflammation. To gain mechanistic insight and ferret out the root of this immune dysregulation, we modeled, by in vitro coculture, the interactions between infected epithelial cells and immunocytes. A strong response was induced in monocytes and B cells, with a SARS-CoV-2-specific inflammatory gene cluster distinct from that seen in influenza A or Ebola virus-infected cocultures, and which reproduced deviations reported in blood or lung myeloid cells from COVID-19 patients. A substantial fraction of the effect could be reproduced after individual transfection of several SARS-CoV-2 proteins (Spike and some nonstructural proteins), mediated by soluble factors, but not via transcriptional induction. This response was greatly muted in monocytes from healthy children, perhaps a clue to the age dependency of COVID-19. These results suggest that the inflammatory malfunction in COVID-19 is rooted in the earliest perturbations that SARS-CoV-2 induces in epithelia.

The US3 Kinase of Herpes Simplex Virus Phosphorylates the RNA Sensor RIG-I To Suppress Innate Immunity.

Recent studies have demonstrated that the signaling activity of the cytosolic pathogen sensor retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) is modulated by a variety of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) to fine-tune the antiviral type I interferon (IFN) response. Whereas K63-linked ubiquitination of the RIG-I caspase activation and recruitment domains (CARDs) catalyzed by TRIM25 or other E3 ligases activates RIG-I, phosphorylation of RIG-I at S8 and T170 represses RIG-I signal transduction by preventing the TRIM25-RIG-I interaction and subsequent RIG-I ubiquitination. While strategies to suppress RIG-I signaling by interfering with its K63-polyubiquitin-dependent activation have been identified for several viruses, evasion mechanisms that directly promote RIG-I phosphorylation to escape antiviral immunity are unknown. Here, we show that the serine/threonine (Ser/Thr) kinase US3 of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) binds to RIG-I and phosphorylates RIG-I specifically at S8. US3-mediated phosphorylation suppressed TRIM25-mediated RIG-I ubiquitination, RIG-I-MAVS binding, and type I IFN induction. We constructed a mutant HSV-1 encoding a catalytically-inactive US3 protein (K220A) and found that, in contrast to the parental virus, the US3 mutant HSV-1 was unable to phosphorylate RIG-I at S8 and elicited higher levels of type I IFNs, IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), and proinflammatory cytokines in a RIG-I-dependent manner. Finally, we show that this RIG-I evasion mechanism is conserved among the alphaherpesvirus US3 kinase family. Collectively, our study reveals a novel immune evasion mechanism of herpesviruses in which their US3 kinases phosphorylate the sensor RIG-I to keep it in the signaling-repressed state. IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes lifelong latency in the majority of the human population worldwide. HSV-1 occasionally reactivates to produce infectious virus and to facilitate dissemination. While often remaining subclinical, both primary infection and reactivation occasionally cause debilitating eye diseases, which can lead to blindness, as well as life-threatening encephalitis and newborn infections. To identify new therapeutic targets for HSV-1-induced diseases, it is important to understand the HSV-1-host interactions that may influence infection outcome and disease. Our work uncovered direct phosphorylation of the pathogen sensor RIG-I by alphaherpesvirus-encoded kinases as a novel viral immune escape strategy and also underscores the importance of RNA sensors in surveilling DNA virus infection.

Tissue-Resident-Memory CD8+ T Cells Bridge Innate Immune Responses in Neighboring Epithelial Cells to Control Human Genital Herpes.

Tissue-resident-memory T cells (TRM) populate the body's barrier surfaces, functioning as frontline responders against reencountered pathogens. Understanding of the mechanisms by which CD8TRM achieve effective immune protection remains incomplete in a naturally recurring human disease. Using laser capture microdissection and transcriptional profiling, we investigate the impact of CD8TRM on the tissue microenvironment in skin biopsies sequentially obtained from a clinical cohort of diverse disease expression during herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) reactivation. Epithelial cells neighboring CD8TRM display elevated and widespread innate and cell-intrinsic antiviral signature expression, largely related to IFNG expression. Detailed evaluation via T-cell receptor reconstruction confirms that CD8TRM recognize viral-infected cells at the specific HSV-2 peptide/HLA level. The hierarchical pattern of core IFN-γ signature expression is well-conserved in normal human skin across various anatomic sites, while elevation of IFI16, TRIM 22, IFITM2, IFITM3, MX1, MX2, STAT1, IRF7, ISG15, IFI44, CXCL10 and CCL5 expression is associated with HSV-2-affected asymptomatic tissue. In primary human cells, IFN-γ pretreatment reduces gene transcription at the immediate-early stage of virus lifecycle, enhances IFI16 restriction of wild-type HSV-2 replication and renders favorable kinetics for host protection. Thus, the adaptive immune response through antigen-specific recognition instructs innate and cell-intrinsic antiviral machinery to control herpes reactivation, a reversal of the canonical thinking of innate activating adaptive immunity in primary infection. Communication from CD8TRM to surrounding epithelial cells to activate broad innate resistance might be critical in restraining various viral diseases.

Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Chimeras Expressing the Oropouche Virus Glycoproteins Elicit Protective Immune Responses in Mice.

Oropouche virus (OROV) infection of humans is associated with a debilitating febrile illness that can progress to meningitis or encephalitis. First isolated from a forest worker in Trinidad and Tobago in 1955, the arbovirus OROV has since been detected throughout the Amazon basin with an estimated 500,000 human infections over 60 years. Like other members of the family Peribunyaviridae, the viral genome exists as 3 single-stranded negative-sense RNA segments. The medium-sized segment encodes a viral glycoprotein complex (GPC) that is proteolytically processed into two viral envelope proteins, Gn and Gc, responsible for attachment and membrane fusion. There are no therapeutics or vaccines to combat OROV infection, and we have little understanding of protective immunity to infection. Here, we generated a replication competent chimeric vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), in which the endogenous glycoprotein was replaced by the GPC of OROV. Serum from mice immunized by intramuscular injection with VSV-OROV specifically neutralized wild-type OROV, and using peptide arrays we mapped multiple epitopes within an N-terminal variable region of Gc recognized by the immune sera. VSV-OROV lacking this variable region of Gc was also immunogenic in mice producing neutralizing sera that recognize additional regions of Gc. Challenge of both sets of immunized mice with wild-type OROV shows that the VSV-OROV chimeras reduce wild-type viral infection and suggest that antibodies that recognize the variable N terminus of Gc afford less protection than those that target more conserved regions of Gc. IMPORTANCE Oropouche virus (OROV), an orthobunyavirus found in Central and South America, is an emerging public health challenge that causes debilitating febrile illness. OROV is transmitted by arthropods, and increasing mobilization has the potential to significantly increase the spread of OROV globally. Despite this, no therapeutics or vaccines have been developed to combat infection. Using vesicular stomatitis (VSV) as a backbone, we developed a chimeric virus bearing the OROV glycoproteins (VSV-OROV) and tested its ability to elicit a neutralizing antibody response. Our results demonstrate that VSV-OROV produces a strong neutralizing antibody response that is at least partially targeted to the N-terminal region of Gc. Importantly, vaccination with VSV-OROV reduces viral loads in mice challenged with wild-type virus. These data provide novel evidence that targeting the OROV glycoproteins may be an effective vaccination strategy to combat OROV infection.

A recombinant herpes virus expressing influenza hemagglutinin confers protection and induces antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity.

Despite widespread yearly vaccination, influenza leads to significant morbidity and mortality across the globe. To make a more broadly protective influenza vaccine, it may be necessary to elicit antibodies that can activate effector functions in immune cells, such as antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). There is growing evidence supporting the necessity for ADCC in protection against influenza and herpes simplex virus (HSV), among other infectious diseases. An HSV-2 strain lacking the essential glycoprotein D (gD), was used to create ΔgD-2, which is a highly protective vaccine against lethal HSV-1 and HSV-2 infection in mice. It also elicits high levels of IgG2c antibodies that bind FcγRIV, a receptor that activates ADCC. To make an ADCC-eliciting influenza vaccine, we cloned the hemagglutinin (HA) gene from an H1N1 influenza A strain into the ΔgD-2 HSV vector. Vaccination with ΔgD-2::HAPR8 was protective against homologous influenza challenge and elicited an antibody response against HA that inhibits hemagglutination (HAI+), is predominantly IgG2c, strongly activates FcγRIV, and protects against influenza challenge following passive immunization of naïve mice. Prior exposure of mice to HSV-1, HSV-2, or a replication-defective HSV-2 vaccine (dl5-29) does not reduce protection against influenza by ΔgD-2::HAPR8 This vaccine also continues to elicit protection against both HSV-1 and HSV-2, including high levels of IgG2c antibodies against HSV-2. Mice lacking the interferon-α/ß receptor and mice lacking the interferon-γ receptor were also protected against influenza challenge by ΔgD-2::HAPR8 Our results suggest that ΔgD-2 can be used as a vaccine vector against other pathogens, while also eliciting protective anti-HSV immunity.

ATRX limits the accessibility of histone H3-occupied HSV genomes during lytic infection.

Histones are rapidly loaded on the HSV genome upon entry into the nucleus of human fibroblasts, but the effects of histone loading on viral replication have not been fully defined. We showed recently that ATRX is dispensable for de novo deposition of H3 to HSV genomes after nuclear entry but restricted infection through maintenance of viral heterochromatin. To further investigate the roles that ATRX and other histone H3 chaperones play in restriction of HSV, we infected human fibroblasts that were systematically depleted of nuclear H3 chaperones. We found that the ATRX/DAXX complex is unique among nuclear H3 chaperones in its capacity to restrict ICP0-null HSV infection. Only depletion of ATRX significantly alleviated restriction of viral replication. Interestingly, no individual nuclear H3 chaperone was required for deposition of H3 onto input viral genomes, suggesting that during lytic infection, H3 deposition may occur through multiple pathways. ChIP-seq for total histone H3 in control and ATRX-KO cells infected with ICP0-null HSV showed that HSV DNA is loaded with high levels of histones across the entire viral genome. Despite high levels of H3, ATAC-seq analysis revealed that HSV DNA is highly accessible, especially in regions of high GC content, and is not organized largely into ordered nucleosomes during lytic infection. ATRX reduced accessibility of viral DNA to the activity of a TN5 transposase and enhanced accumulation of viral DNA fragment sizes associated with nucleosome-like structures. Together, these findings support a model in which ATRX restricts viral infection by altering the structure of histone H3-loaded viral chromatin that reduces viral DNA accessibility for transcription. High GC rich regions of the HSV genome, especially the S component inverted repeats of the HSV-1 genome, show increased accessibility, which may lead to increased ability to transcribe the IE genes encoded in these regions during initiation of infection.

Expression of SARS coronavirus 1 spike protein from a herpesviral vector induces innate immune signaling and neutralizing antibody responses.

SARS coronavirus 1 (SARS-CoV-1) causes a respiratory infection that can lead to acute respiratory distress characterized by inflammation and high levels of cytokines in the lung tissue. In this study we constructed a herpes simplex virus 1 replication-defective mutant vector expressing SARS-CoV-1 spike protein as a potential vaccine vector and to probe the effects of spike protein on host cells. The spike protein expressed from this vector is functional in that it localizes to the surface of infected cells and induces fusion of ACE2-expressing cells. In immunized mice, the recombinant vector induced antibodies that bind to spike protein in an ELISA assay and that show neutralizing activity. The spike protein expressed from this vector can induce the expression of cytokines in an ACE2-independent, MyD88-dependent process. These results argue that the SARS-CoV-1 spike protein intrinsically activates signaling pathways that induce cytokines and contribute directly to the inflammatory process of SARS.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Manipulates Host Cell Antiviral and Proviral DNA Damage Responses.

Cells activate their DNA damage response (DDR) in response to DNA virus infection, including adenoviruses, papillomaviruses, polyomaviruses, and herpesviruses. In this study, we found that the DDR kinase pathways activated in normal human fibroblasts by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) input genomic DNA, HSV-1 replicating DNA, and progeny DNA and in uninfected cells treated with etoposide are different. We also found using clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas9 technology that different host gene products are required for the DDR in uninfected versus infected cells. Individual DDR components can be proviral or antiviral in that ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and p53 promote and Mre11 restricts replication of ICP0-null HSV-1, but ICP0 expression eliminates these DDR effects. Thus, in total, these results argue that HSV-1 manipulates the host cell DDR to utilize specific components for its optimal replication while inactivating the antiviral aspects of the DDR.IMPORTANCE We investigated the relationship between the DNA damage response, a collection of vital cellular pathways that repair potentially lethal damage to the genome, and the DNA virus herpes simplex virus 1. We found that infection by the virus triggers the DNA damage response, and key proteins that mediate this response have opposing effects on the replication and production of progeny viruses. Our work provides novel insights into the relationship between DNA virus infection and the cellular response to the viral genome. We speculate that viral gene products modulate this response, providing potentially novel targets for therapeutic intervention against the virus.

Tripartite Motif 22 (TRIM22) protein restricts herpes simplex virus 1 by epigenetic silencing of viral immediate-early genes.

Intrinsic resistance is a crucial line of defense against virus infections, and members of the Tripartite Ring Interaction Motif (TRIM) family of proteins are major players in this system, such as cytoplasmic TRIM5α or nuclear promyelocytic leukemia (PML/TRIM19) protein. Previous reports on the antiviral function of another TRIM protein, TRIM22, emphasized its innate immune role as a Type I and Type II interferon-stimulated gene against RNA viruses. This study shows that TRIM22 has an additional intrinsic role against DNA viruses. Here, we report that TRIM22 is a novel restriction factor of HSV-1 and limits ICP0-null virus replication by increasing histone occupancy and heterochromatin, thereby reducing immediate-early viral gene expression. The corresponding wild-type equivalent of the virus evades the TRIM22-specific restriction by a mechanism independent of ICP0-mediated degradation. We also demonstrate that TRIM22 inhibits other DNA viruses, including representative members of the ß- and γ- herpesviruses. Allelic variants in TRIM22 showed different degrees of anti-herpesviral activity; thus, TRIM22 genetic variability may contribute to the varying susceptibility to HSV-1 infection in humans. Collectively, these results argue that TRIM22 is a novel restriction factor and expand the list of restriction factors functioning in the infected cell nucleus to counter DNA virus infection.

Regulation of host and virus genes by neuronal miR-138 favours herpes simplex virus 1 latency.

MicroRNA miR-138, which is highly expressed in neurons, represses herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) lytic cycle genes by targeting viral ICP0 messenger RNA, thereby promoting viral latency in mice. We found that overexpressed miR-138 also represses lytic processes independently of ICP0 in murine and human neuronal cells; therefore, we investigated whether miR-138 has targets besides ICP0. Using genome-wide RNA sequencing/photoactivatable ribonucleoside-enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation followed by short interfering RNA knockdown of candidate targets, we identified the host Oct-1 and Foxc1 messenger mRNAs as miR-138's targets, whose gene products are transcription factors important for HSV-1 replication in neuronal cells. OCT-1 has a known role in the initiation of HSV transcription. Overexpression of FOXC1, which was not known to affect HSV-1, promoted HSV-1 replication in murine neurons and ganglia. CRISPR-Cas9 knockout of FOXC1 reduced viral replication, lytic gene expression and miR-138 repression in murine neuronal cells. FOXC1 also collaborated with ICP0 to decrease heterochromatin on viral genes and compensated for the defect of an ICP0-null virus. In summary, miR-138 targets ICP0, Oct-1 and Foxc1 to repress HSV-1 lytic cycle genes and promote epigenetic gene silencing, which together enable favourable conditions for latent infection.