ABSTRACT
In this paper, we address the question on how societies coped with pandemic crises, how they tried to control or adapt to the disease, or even managed to overcome the death trap in history. On the basis of historical research, we describe how societies in the western world accommodated to or exited hardship and restrictive measures over the course of the last four centuries. In particular, we are interested in how historically embedded citizens' resources were directed towards living with and to a certain extent accepting the virus. Such an approach of "applied history" to the management of crises and public hazards, we believe, helps address today's pressing question of what adaptive strategies can be adopted to return to a normalized life, including living with socially acceptable medical, hygienic and other pandemic-related measures.
En este artículo abordamos la cuestión de cómo las sociedades enfrentaron las crisis pandémicas, cómo intentaron controlar o adaptarse a la enfermedad, o incluso cómo lograron superar la trampa mortal de la historia. Basándonos en la investigación histórica, describimos cómo las sociedades del mundo occidental se adaptaron o salieron de las dificultades y las medidas restrictivas durante los últimos cuatro siglos. En particular, estamos interesados en cómo los recursos de los ciudadanos históricamente arraigados se dirigieron a vivir con el virus y, hasta cierto punto, a aceptarlo. Creemos que este enfoque de "historia aplicada" a la gestión de crisis y peligros públicos ayuda a abordar la urgente cuestión actual de qué estrategias de adaptación se pueden adoptar para volver a una vida normalizada, que abarque vivir con servicios médicos y de higiene socialmente aceptables y otras medidas relacionadas con la pandemia.
ABSTRACT
This paper argues that the anatomical Cabinets of Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch must be understood as an early modern workshop in which preparations were continuously handled. It is claimed that preparations actively appealed to anatomists and visitors to handle, re-dissect, touch, and even kiss them. Touching anatomy, therefore, not only refers to the physical handling of objects, but also to the ways preparations impacted on visitors and touched them emotionally.
Subject(s)
Anatomy/history , History, 17th Century , History, 18th Century , Humans , NetherlandsABSTRACT
People in the early modern period frequently gave accounts of little animals (such as worms, flies, slugs and even dogs) living and breeding inside their bodies. This article investigates descriptions of "animals inside" in the works of Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch. It links the occurrence of such animals to the fear of pile worms endangering Dutch dikes and houses, and thereby the safety of society. The animals embodied pain and discomfort and were often associated with immorality and sexuality. As powerful symbols of interior corruption, they served as tangible reminders of the corruption of individuals as well as of the nation.
Subject(s)
Anatomy/history , Parasites , Animals , Female , History, 17th Century , History, 18th Century , Humans , Male , Netherlands , VirtuesABSTRACT
A controversy between the well-known medical teacher Herman Boerhaave and the anatomist Frederik Ruysch on the nature of the glands shows how chemical knowledge had a decisive influence on the way in which Boerhaave perceived the anatomy and working of the glands. While Ruysch maintained that the glands are no more than the extremities of arteries and act as mechanical instruments separating the fluids into smaller particles, Boerhaave examined the glands as membranous follicles in which chemical processes prepare the fluids for their different uses in the body. Boerhaave, in other words, turned to the chemical properties of particles rather than the vessels that contain them. Boerhaave's viewpoint was new and resulted from his belief in chemistry as the discipline par excellence for the explanation of the most basic processes in the body. More than anything else, the controversy shows how chemistry was not contained within fixed disciplinary boundaries, but had a decisive influence on Boerhaave's construction of anatomical knowledge.
Subject(s)
Anatomy/history , Chemistry/history , Endocrine Glands/metabolism , Correspondence as Topic/history , Endocrine Glands/anatomy & histology , History, 17th Century , History, 18th Century , Humans , Medical Illustration/history , Netherlands , Philosophy, Medical/historyABSTRACT
Thomas Willis's description of the intercostal nerves has not received much attention by historians of medicine. Yet the intercostal nerves are of paramount importance for his neurology. Willis explained that via these nerves, which connect the brain to the heart and lower viscera, the brain controls the passions and instincts of the lower body. In other words, Willis believed that the intercostal nerves mediate a kind of rationality and that therefore they make a human a rational being. Willis's theory, I argue, must be seen in the context of the early modern mind-body problem. In the second part of the article I discuss how Oxford theologian Samuel Parker took up Willis's argument while stating that the intercostal nerves are the most important instruments (reins) of the soul. They control the bodily passions so that humans can transform into more virtuous beings. The explanation of the intercostal nerves offered by Willis and Parker fits the Anglican optimism about the abilities of human reason as well as about the moral potential of humankind.
Subject(s)
Intercostal Nerves , Neurology/history , Philosophy, Medical/history , Theology/history , History, 17th Century , Humans , SpiritualityABSTRACT
Among historians of science and medicine it is well known that early modern anatomical representations, in addition to illustrating ideas on the body, also teach a moral lesson. The anatomical cabinets of Frederik Ruysch (1638-1731) are exemplary. His exhibits show 1) the divine design of the body and 2) the fragility of life and man's dependence on God for his existence. Govard Bidloo (1649-1713), in his anatomical atlas, the Anatomia humani corporis (1685), does not seem to answer this standard view on the 'moral teaching' of anatomy. It has been argued that his depictions of dead and mutilated (parts of) bodies indicate a more realistic way of representation, devoid of metaphor and morality. Yet, taking the fierce controversy between Bidloo and Ruysch as my starting point, I show that in fact there is a moral lesson in Bidloo's anatomy. It reflects two important aspects of Bidloo's Mennonite faith, i.e. the aversion against beautiful decoration and the fascination with suffering and death found in martyr stories.
