Enhancer activation via TCP and HD-ZIP and repression by Dof transcription factors mediate giant cell-specific expression.

Proper cell-type identity relies on highly coordinated regulation of gene expression. Regulatory elements such as enhancers can produce cell type-specific expression patterns, but the mechanisms underlying specificity are not well understood. We previously identified an enhancer region capable of driving specific expression in giant cells, which are large, highly endoreduplicated cells in the Arabidopsis thaliana sepal epidermis. In this study, we use the giant cell enhancer as a model to understand the regulatory logic that promotes cell type-specific expression. Our dissection of the enhancer revealed that giant cell specificity is mediated primarily through the combination of two activators and one repressor. HD-ZIP and TCP transcription factors are involved in the activation of expression throughout the epidermis. High expression of HD-ZIP transcription factor genes in giant cells promoted higher expression driven by the enhancer in giant cells. Dof transcription factors repressed the activity of the enhancer such that only giant cells maintained enhancer activity. Thus, our data are consistent with a conceptual model whereby cell type-specific expression emerges from the combined activities of three transcription factor families activating and repressing expression in epidermal cells.

Apical Constriction Reversal upon Mitotic Entry Underlies Different Morphogenetic Outcomes of Cell Division.

During development, coordinated cell shape changes and cell divisions sculpt tissues. While these individual cell behaviors have been extensively studied, how cell shape changes and cell divisions that occur concurrently in epithelia influence tissue shape is less understood. We addressed this question in two contexts of the early Drosophila embryo: premature cell division during mesoderm invagination, and native ectodermal cell divisions with ectopic activation of apical contractility. Using quantitative live-cell imaging, we demonstrated that mitotic entry reverses apical contractility by interfering with medioapical RhoA signaling. While premature mitotic entry inhibits mesoderm invagination, which relies on apical constriction, mitotic entry in an artificially contractile ectoderm induced ectopic tissue invaginations. Ectopic invaginations resulted from medioapical myosin loss in neighboring mitotic cells. This myosin loss enabled nonmitotic cells to apically constrict through mitotic cell stretching. Thus, the spatial pattern of mitotic entry can differentially regulate tissue shape through signal interference between apical contractility and mitosis.

The cellular and molecular mechanisms that establish the mechanics of Drosophila gastrulation.

In this review, we cover advances in the field that have contributed to our mechanistic understanding of how tissues internalize during Drosophila melanogaster gastrulation. The changes in tissue shape and architecture that are associated with mesoderm and endoderm invagination in the early Drosophila embryo are accompanied by cell shape changes which are driven by actomyosin contractility. The activation of signal transduction pathways is patterned by embryonic transcription factors, which define distinct geometries of gene expression and the tissue contractile domains. At the subcellular level, outputs from signaling pathways that activate actomyosin contractility are highly polarized and their behavior is fine-tuned by a balance of both positive and negative regulation. Cells are mechanically linked through adherens junctions, allowing forces that are generated by cells to be integrated across the tissue, ensuring coordinated cell behavior during tissue invagination. The transmission of force between cells also enables mechanical feedback whereby force generation influences both cell and cytoskeletal behavior. Finally, after tissue invagination, mesoderm cells undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and cell spreading. We highlight studies that have utilized this model system to uncover fundamental principles at molecular-, cell-, and tissue-levels, which have contributed to our understanding of similar tissue morphogenetic processes across different organisms.

Microtubules promote intercellular contractile force transmission during tissue folding.

During development, forces transmitted between cells are critical for sculpting epithelial tissues. Actomyosin contractility in the middle of the cell apex (medioapical) can change cell shape (e.g., apical constriction) but can also result in force transmission between cells via attachments to adherens junctions. How actomyosin networks maintain attachments to adherens junctions under tension is poorly understood. Here, we discovered that microtubules promote actomyosin intercellular attachments in epithelia during Drosophila melanogaster mesoderm invagination. First, we used live imaging to show a novel arrangement of the microtubule cytoskeleton during apical constriction: medioapical Patronin (CAMSAP) foci formed by actomyosin contraction organized an apical noncentrosomal microtubule network. Microtubules were required for mesoderm invagination but were not necessary for initiating apical contractility or adherens junction assembly. Instead, microtubules promoted connections between medioapical actomyosin and adherens junctions. These results delineate a role for coordination between actin and microtubule cytoskeletal systems in intercellular force transmission during tissue morphogenesis.