Parenting Stress and Child Externalizing and Internalizing Problems Among Low-Income Families: Exploring Transactional Associations.

Although the association between parenting stress and child behavioral outcomes is well established (Deater-Deckard, Clin Psychol 5:314-332, 1998), longitudinal research examining the direction of these effects is limited. This study examined transactional associations between parenting stress and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors among 1209 low-income female caregivers (Mage = 34.51) with children in early childhood or early adolescence (i.e., either 2- to 5-years-olds or 9- to 15-year-olds at Time 1) across a 6 year time span using three time points. Parent-driven associations between parenting stress and child internalizing problems for the early childhood group were found. In the early adolescent group, transactional and child-driven associations were found between parenting stress and child externalizing problems, but only child-driven associations for internalizing problems. Thus, transactional associations were only supported for the early adolescent group. These findings suggest developmental differences in how parenting stress and child behavioral problems are linked among low-income families. Clinical implications are discussed.

Parent-Adolescent Communication Influences on Anxious and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adolescence.

The unique developmental changes and important role of parents during early adolescence warrants consideration of parent-adolescent communication, including open communication, co-problem-solving, and co-rumination, and its influences on adolescents' anxious and depressive symptoms. In this study, 400 early adolescents (M age = 12.49; 54% female) recruited from a middle school completed electronic questionnaires at two time points, 5 months apart. While most bivariate associations examined between communication processes and adolescents' symptoms were significant, path analyses found unique patterns. Specifically, over time, paternal open communication was negatively associated with adolescent anxious and depressive symptoms while paternal co-rumination was positively associated with depressive, but not anxious, symptoms. In contrast, few maternal communication factors were significantly linked to adolescents' internalizing symptoms, with only maternal co-rumination surprisingly being negatively linked to depressive symptoms over time. The results suggest how parents communicate with their children may be important as early adolescents develop problem-solving and adaptive coping skills to successfully navigate new experiences.

Coping Strategies and Psychological Symptoms Among Children on St. Thomas in the Aftermath of Hurricanes Irma and Maria.

Research has shown that experiencing a hurricane can lead to internalizing, externalizing, and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms in children. However, the effects of experiencing two hurricanes within a short time frame have not been examined. Moreover, there is limited research examining how children's coping is linked to their psychological functioning and no research using the empirically supported conceptualization of coping that includes primary control coping (i.e., attempts to control the stressor) and secondary control coping (i.e., attempts to adapt to the stressor). This study examined the psychological functioning of 108 children and adolescents (69.7% Black, Non-Hispanic; 56.5% female; M age = 11.59 years, SD = 2.43) in Grades 3-12 as measured 3 months after experiencing Hurricanes Irma and Maria on the island of St. Thomas. Participants completed electronic questionnaires about their demographic characteristics, hurricane exposure (i.e., perceived life-threat, life-threatening events, loss/disruption after hurricanes), coping strategies utilized, and their psychological functioning (i.e., PTS, internalizing, and externalizing symptoms). A principal component analysis of the coping items determined four coping factors: primary control, secondary control, disengagement, and negative coping. Linear regressions, including children's age and aspects of hurricane exposure, found primary control coping was positively associated with PTS symptoms, ß = .18, whereas secondary control coping was negatively associated with PTS and externalizing symptoms, ßs = -.17 and -.19, respectively. Negative coping, but not disengagement coping, was positively associated with all three outcomes, ßs = .31-.42. These findings suggest positive ways children can cope after experiencing a hurricane, informing possible early intervention efforts.