Acetylsalicylic acid as antifungal in Eremothecium and other yeasts.

Interesting distribution patterns of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin) sensitive 3-hydroxy (OH) oxylipins were previously reported in some representatives of the yeast genus Eremothecium--an important group of plant pathogens. Using immunofluorescence microscopy and 3-OH oxylipin specific antibodies in this study, we were able to map the presence of these compounds also in other Eremothecium species. In Eremothecium cymbalariae, these oxylipins were found to cover mostly the spiky tips of narrowly triangular ascospores while in Eremothecium gossypii, oxylipins covered the whole spindle-shaped ascospore with terminal appendages. The presence of these oxylipins was confirmed by chemical analysis. When ASA, a 3-OH oxylipin inhibitor, was added to these yeasts in increasing concentrations, the sexual stage was found to be the most sensitive. Our results suggest that 3-OH oxylipins, produced by mitochondria through incomplete beta-oxidation, are associated with the development of the sexual stages in both yeasts. Strikingly, preliminary studies on yeast growth suggest that yeasts, characterized by mainly an aerobic respiration rather than a fermentative pathway, are more sensitive to ASA than yeasts characterized by both pathways. These data further support the role of mitochondria in sexual as well as asexual reproduction of yeasts and its role to serve as a target for ASA antifungal action.

Oxylipin covered ascospores of Eremothecium coryli.

Eremothecium coryli is known to produce intriguing spindle-shaped ascospores with long and thin whip-like appendages. Here, ultra structural studies using scanning electron microscopy, indicate that these appendages serve to coil around themselves and around ascospores causing spore aggregation. Furthermore, using immunofluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy it was found that hydrophobic 3-hydroxy oxylipins cover the surfaces of these ascospores. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, only the oxylipin 3-hydroxy 9:1 (a monounsaturated fatty acid containing a hydroxyl group on carbon 3) could be identified. Sequential digital imaging suggests that oxylipin-coated spindle-shaped ascospores are released from enclosed asci probably by protruding through an already disintegrating ascus wall.

Uncovering the first double brimmed hat-shaped ascospores in Ambrosiozyma platypodis Van der Walt.

Using transmission electron microscopy with glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide as chemical fixatives, hat-shaped ascospores with two brims each were uncovered in the yeast Ambrosiozyma platypodis. This is the first report on such structures.

Variation in functional ascospore parts in the ascomycetous yeast Dipodascopsis uninucleata.

A variation in functional ascospore morphology was detected using electron microscopy (EM) in two varieties of the yeast Dipodascopsis uninucleata, i.e., D. uninucleata var. uninucleata and D. uninucleata var. wickerhamii. It was found that the latter produces ascospores characterized by the absence of small surface hooks which have been implicated in the release and re-assembly of ascospores in D. uninucleata var. uninucleata. These varieties are closely related on the basis of their mode of sexual reproduction, ascospore morphology as observed under the light microscope, physiological characteristics as well as the extent of divergence in the variable D1/D2 domain of the large subunit 26S ribosomal DNA.

Acetate enhances citric acid production by Yarrowia lipolytica when grown on sunflower oil.

It was discovered that the addition of 10 g/l acetate to a medium containing 30 g/l sunflower oil caused a drastic increase in citric acid production by Yarrowia lipolytica UOFS Y-1701 i.e. from 0.5 g/l in the absence of acetate to 18.7 g/l in the presence of acetate. Similarly, the ratio of citric acid:isocitric acid increased significantly from 1.7:1 in the absence of acetate to 3.7:1 in the presence of acetate after 240 h of growth.

Mapping 3-hydroxy oxylipins on ascospores of Eremothecium sinecaudum.

3-Hydroxy oxylipins were uncovered on ascospores of Eremothecium sinecaudum using immunofluorescence microscopy. This was confirmed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. These oxylipins were observed only on ascospore parts characterised by nano-scale surface ornamentations simulating a corkscrew as demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy. Conventional ascospore staining further confirms its hydrophobic nature. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy we found that the corkscrew part with spiky tip of needle-shaped ascospores may play a role in rupturing the ascus in order to affect its release. Through oxylipin inhibition studies we hypothesise a possible role for 3-hydroxy oxylipins in facilitating the rupturing process.

Oxylipins and ascospore morphology in the ascomycetous yeast genus Dipodascus.

Immunofluorescence microscopy was used to assess members of the yeast genus Dipodascus for the presence of 3-hydroxy oxylipins. Fluorescence was associated with the aggregating ascospores in all species tested, thus suggesting the association of 3-hydroxy oxylipins with these cells, especially the surrounding slime sheaths. An ultrastructural study of the ascospores revealed sheaths with indentations, probably caused by the close packing of the ascospores to form clusters. In addition, an increase in the neutral and glycolipid fractions as well as a decrease in the phospholipid fraction during ascosporogenesis in D. ambrosiae was found.

Bioprospecting for novel hydroxyoxylipins in fungi: presence of 3-hydroxy palmitic acid in Saccharomycopsis malanga.

Electron microscopy studies indicated that the major oxylipin 3-hydroxy palmitic acid (16:0) was associated with aggregating vegetative cells and formed a web-like structure around these cells. Cross sections through this structure showed a hydrophilic outer layer and a more hydrophobic inner layer suggesting that the web-like structure is in fact tube-like micelles. This information sheds more light on the role of these hydroxyoxylipins in fungi.

Bioprospecting for novel oxylipins in fungi: the presence of 3-hydroxy oxylipins in Pilobolus.

As previously found in various members of the Mucorales, 3-hydroxy oxylipins in Mucor genevensis are associated with the sporangia, i.e. mainly the columella structure and between aggregating sporangiospores. To determine if this phenomenon is also true in distantly related members, the mucoralean fungus Pilobolus was examined. This fungus is characterized by relatively large sub sporangial-columella structures which actively eject sporangia in a sticky liquid for attachment onto herbage surrounding its growth medium--in this case horse dung. Strikingly, this fungus produced a novel oxylipin i.e. a 3-hydroxy monounsaturated fatty acid, possibly a nonenoic acid, which is mainly associated with the sub sporangial-columella structure and aggregating sporangiospores. The specificity of the antibody against 3-hydroxy oxylipins used in immunofluorescence mapping of the mucoralean fungi, was further confirmed in the yeast, Saccharomycopsis malanga which produces 3-hydroxy palmitate in crystal form. These crystals occur between aggregating yeast cells. On the basis of the available data, we hypothesize that 3-hydroxy oxylipins probably function as adhesives, attaching fungal cells to each other or to other surfaces through entropic based hydrophobic forces and/or hydrogen bonds.

Mapping the distribution of 3-hydroxylipins in the Mucorales using immunofluorescence microscopy.

The distribution of endogenous 3-hydroxylipins (3-OH oxylipins) in representatives of the Mucorales was mapped using immunofluorescence microscopy. Strains of each of the following genera were examined: Absidia, Actinomucor, Cunninghamella, Mortierella (subgenus Micromucor), Mortierella (subgenus Mortierella), Mucor and Rhizomucor. Immunofluorescence microscopy was carried out using an antibody that was raised against 3R-hydroxy-5Z,8Z, 11 Z, 14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (3R-HETE), which cross-reacts with other 3-OH oxylipins. Subsequently, the occurrence and distribution of the antibody on the various reproductive stages of each fungus was noted. In Absidia, Actinomucor, Mortierella (subgenus Micromucor), Mucor and Rhizomucor, 3-OH oxylipins were found to be associated with the columellae and/or wall of the sporangium. In the representative of Cunninghamella, the 3-OH oxylipins were associated with the single-spored sporangiola. No 3-OH oxylipins were detected in the strains representing Mortierella (subgenus Mortierella).

Ascospore aggregation and oxylipin distribution in the yeast Dipodascopsis tothii.

Upon cultivation of the yeast Dipodascopsis tothii in its sexual stage, small ascospores are released individually from the ascus tip, which then assemble in sheathed cluster balls. In contrast to Dipodascopsis uninucleata, this yeast produced smooth bean shaped ascospores with sheath-like appendages that assemble in a disordered sheathed ball of ascospores outside the ascus. Strikingly, upon release, the ascus tip contained 3-hydroxy oxylipins, while the released ascospore clusters contained little or no 3-hydroxy oxylipins as indicated by immunofluorescence microscopy. In D. uninucleata, these oxylipins are concentrated on the spore surface and interspore matrix, but not on the ascus tip.

A novel oxylipin-associated 'ghosting' phenomenon in yeast flocculation.

Research on the distribution of oxylipins (3-hydroxy fatty acids) in flocculant strains of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae led to the uncovering of a novel 'ghosting' phenomenon observed during assumed lectin-mediated aggregation. We found that intracellular oxylipin-containing osmiophilic layers migrate through yeast cell walls in a 'ghostlike' fashion without visually affecting the cell wall structure or the layers. This migration resulted in the binding of these layers to cell walls of adjacent cells. Consequently, 'ghosting' seems a prerequisite for flocculation to occur. However, 'ghosting' alone may not be sufficient to ensure flocculation.

Arachidonic acid stimulates cell growth and forms a novel oxygenated metabolite in Candida albicans.

Infection of human tissues by Candida albicans has been reported to cause the release of arachidonic acid (AA), eicosanoids and other proinflammatory mediators from host cells. Therefore, we investigated the interaction of this pathogen with AA. AA stimulated cell growth at micromolar concentrations when used as a sole carbon source. Moreover, it selectively inhibited the antimycin A-resistant alternative oxidase. [1-(14)C]AA was completely metabolised by C. albicans. Only one-seventh of the radioactivity metabolised was found in CO(2), whereas two-thirds occurred in carbohydrates suggesting a predominant role of the glyoxalate shunt of citrate cycle. About 1% of radioactivity was found in polar lipids including eicosanoids. A novel AA metabolite, which revealed immunoreactivity with an antibody against 3(R)-hydroxy-oxylipins, was identified as 3, 18-dihydroxy-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, endogenous 3(R)-hydroxy-oxylipins were found in hyphae but not in yeast cells. Such compounds have recently been shown to be connected with the sexual stage of the life cycle of Dipodascopsis uninucleata. Together, we propose that infection-mediated release of AA from host cells may modulate cell growth, morphogenesis and invasiveness of C. albicans by several modes. A better understanding of its role is thus promising for novel approaches towards the treatment of human mycoses.

An isolation procedure for arachidonic acid producing Mortierella species.

Malt extract agar and an incubation temperature of 5 degrees C were used to selectively isolate representatives of the genus Mortierella from soil. Fungi in a soil sample from mountain grassland able to grow under these conditions, amounted to a total of 2640 colony forming units per gram soil. Circa 94% of the total fungal isolates represented Mortierella subgenus Mortierella. The rest of the colony-forming units consisted of Mucor isolates (6.0%) and higher fungi (1.5%). All the Mortierella isolates produced arachidonic acid.

An acetylsalicylic acid-sensitive aggregation phenomenon in Dipodascopsis uninucleata.

Aggregation of ascospores has been discovered in the yeast Dipodascopsis uninucleata. When this yeast is cultivated to reach the sexual reproductive stage, small ascospores are individually released from the tip of a sac-like ascus which then aggregate in orderly clusters. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) inhibited ascospore release and subsequent ordered aggregation process. We suggest that novel ASA-sensitive oxidised fatty acids (3R-hydroxy-oxylipins) and small hooks located on the surface of these ascospores, are involved.

Biological dynamics and distribution of 3-hydroxy fatty acids in the yeast Dipodascopsis uninucleata as investigated by immunofluorescence microscopy. Evidence for a putative regulatory role in the sexual reproductive cycle.

Dipodascopsis uninucleata has been recently shown to produce 3-hydroxy polyenoic fatty acids from several exogenous polyenoic fatty acids. In order to examine whether endogenous 3-hydroxy fatty acids (3-OH-FA) may be implicated in the developmental biology of this yeast, we mapped by immunofluorescence microscopy their occurrence in fixed cells with or without cell walls using an antibody raised against 3R-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (3R-HETE), the biotransformation product from arachidonic acid (AA). This antibody turned out to cross-react with other 3-OH-FA. 3-OH-FA were detected in situ in gametangia, asci, as well as between released ascospores, and proved to be associated with the sexual reproductive stage of the life cycle of the yeast. Acetylsalicylic acid (1 mM), which is known to suppress the formation of 3-OH-FA from exogenous polyenoic fatty acids, inhibited the occurrence of immunoreactive material as well as the sexual phase of the life cycle suggesting a prominent regulatory role of 3-OH-FA for the latter.

Oxylipin formation in fungi: biotransformation of arachidonic acid to 3-hydroxy-5,8-tetradecadienoic acid by Mucor genevensis.

The soil fungus Mucor genevensis was shown to convert exogenous arachidonic acid to the oxylipin 3-hydroxy-5Z,8Z-tetradecadienoic acid (3-HTDE) as determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. This metabolite was only found in the aqueous supernatant together with free linoleic acid, but not in the final fungal biomass. In contrast, the corresponding primary arachidonic acid metabolite (3R)-hydroxy-(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)-eicosatetraenoic acid (3-HETE), which has been earlier shown to be produced by the yeast Dipodascopsis uninucleata, could not be detected. These observations may be plausibly explained by a retroconversion by M. genevensis of arachidonic acid to linoleic acid before the latter is metabolised to 3-HTDE.

The production of gamma-linolenic acid by selected members of the Dikaryomycota grown on different carbon sources.

In this study, seven fungal strains, representing different phylogenetic groups within the Dikaryomycota, were tested for the presence of gamma-linolenic acid [18:3(omega 6)], when grown in synthetic liquid media devoid of fatty acids, on a series of 40 different carbon sources. The fungal strains represented the species Dipodascopsis uninucleata, Eurotium rubrum, Galactomyces geotrichum, Neurospora crassa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Spongipellis unicolor and Talaromyces flavus. Cultures were periodically harvested during growth and the fatty acids in the total lipids analysed as methyl esters, using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. It was found that 18:3(omega 6) is present in E. rubrum CBS 350.65, S. unicolor CBS 117.16 and in T. flavus CBS 310.38NT, when these strains were grown on certain carbon sources. No correlation between the growth phase of the organism and the presence of 18:3(omega 6) could be detected. In order to confirm the production of 18:3(omega 6), the lipid metabolism of two unrelated dikaryomycotan fungi (S. unicolor CBS 117.16 and E. rubrum CBS 350.65) grown on two different carbon sources each, was examined. Cultures of E. rubrum CBS 350.65 were grown on glucose and sorbose and cultures of S. unicolor CBS 117.16 on glucose and sucrose in synthetic liquid media with a C:N ratio of 50:1 (w/w). The total lipids of these cultures were fractionated and the fatty acids in the fractions analysed as methyl esters, using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The lipid metabolism of both E. rubrum CBS 350.65 and S. unicolor CBS 117.16 differed on the two carbon sources used. The ab initio production of 18:3(omega 6) by E. rubrum CBS 350.65 in synthetic liquid media was confirmed. In contrast, the ab initio production of 18:3(omega 6) by S. unicolor CBS 117.16 in synthetic liquid media could not be confirmed.