Air temperature, carbon dioxide, and ammonia assessment inside a commercial cage layer barn with manure-drying tunnels.

Understanding the air temperature distribution, ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in poultry housing systems are crucial to poultry health, welfare, and productivity. In this study, 4 Intelligent Portable Monitoring Units and 7 temperature sensors were installed inside and between the cages and above 2 minimum ventilation fans of a commercial stacked-deck cage laying hen house in the Midwest United States (425,000 laying hens) to continuously monitor the interior environment over a 6-month period. During cold conditions (March 12th-May 22nd), there was a variation noted, with barn center temperatures consistently being highest in the longitudinal and lateral direction (P < 0.001) and the top floor deck warmer than the bottom floor (P < 0.05). During hotter conditions (May 23rd-July 26th), the interior thermal environment was more uniform than during the winter, resulting in a difference only in the longitudinal direction. The daily CO2 and NH3 concentrations were 400 to 4,981 ppm and 0 to 42.3 ppm among the 4 sampling locations, respectively. Both CO2 and NH3 decreased linearly with increasing outside temperatures. The mean NH3 and CO2 concentrations varied with sampling locations and with the outside temperatures (P < 0.001). For CO2, the minimum ventilation sidewall had lower values than those measured in the barn's center (P < 0.05) during cold weather, while the barn center and the manure room sidewall consistently measured the highest concentrations during warmer weather (P < 0.05). For NH3, the tunnel ventilation inlet end consistently had the lowest daily concentrations, whereas the in-cage and manure drying tunnel sidewall locations measured the highest concentrations (P < 0.001). Higher NH3 and CO2 concentrations were recorded within the cage than in the cage aisle (P < 0.05). The highest NH3 concentration of 42 ppm was recorded above the minimum exhaust fan adjacent to the manure drying tunnel, which indicated that higher pressure (back pressure) in the manure drying tunnel allowed air leakage back into the production area through nonoperating sidewall fan shutters.

Effects of carbon dioxide on turkey poult performance and behavior.

Appropriate ventilation of poultry facilities is critical for achieving optimum performance. Ventilation promotes good air exchange to remove harmful gases, excessive heat, moisture, and particulate matter. In a turkey brooder barn, carbon dioxide (CO2) may be present at higher levels during the winter due to reduced ventilation rates to maintain high temperatures. This higher CO2 may negatively affect turkey poult performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of subjecting tom turkey poults (commercial Large White Hybrid Converters) to different constant levels of atmospheric CO2 on their growth performance and behavior. In three consecutive replicate trials, a total of 552 poults were weighed post-hatch and randomly placed in 3 environmental control chambers, with 60 (Trial 1) and 62 (Trials 2 and 3) poults housed per chamber. They were reared with standard temperature and humidity levels for 3 wks. The poults were exposed to 3 different fixed CO2 concentrations of 2,000, 4,000, and 6,000 ppm throughout each trial. Following each trial (replicate), the CO2 treatments were switched and assigned to a different chamber in order to expose each treatment to each chamber. At the end of each trial, all poults were sent to a local turkey producer to finish growout. For each trial, individual body weight and group feed intake were measured, and mortality and behavioral movement were recorded. Wk 3 and cumulative body weight gain of poults housed at 2,000 ppm CO2 was greater (P < 0.05) than those exposed to 4,000 and 6,000 ppm CO2. Feed intake and feed conversion were unaffected by the different CO2 concentrations. No significant difference in poult mortality was found between treatments. In addition, no effect of CO2 treatments was evident in the incidence of spontaneous turkey cardiomyopathy for turkeys processed at 19 wk of age. Poults housed at the lower CO2 level (2,000 ppm) demonstrated reduced movement compared with those exposed to the 2 higher CO2 concentrations.

Effects of feeding diets varying in energy and nutrient density to Hy-Line W-36 laying hens on production performance and economics.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of feeding 5 different energy and nutrient dense diets to Hy-Line W-36 hens on long-term performance and economics. A total of 480 19 wk old Hy-Line W-36 Single Comb White Leghorn hens were weighed and randomly allocated to 6 replicate groups of 16 hens each (2 adjacent cages containing 8 hens per cage, 60.9×58.4 cm) per dietary treatment in a randomized complete block design. The hens were fed 5 treatment diets formulated to contain 85, 90, 95, 100, and 105% of the energy and nutrient recommendations stated in the 2009 Hy-Line Variety W-36 Commercial Management Guide. Production performance was measured for 52 wk from 19 to 70 wk age. Over the course of the trial, a significant increasing linear response to increasing energy and nutrient density was seen for hen-day egg production, egg weight, egg mass, feed efficiency, energy intake, and body weight (BW). Feed intake showed no significant linear level response to increasing energy and nutrient density except during the early production cycle. No consistent responses were noted for egg quality, percent yolk, and percent egg solids throughout the study. Significant linear responses due to energy and nutrient density were seen for egg income, feed cost, and income minus feed cost. In general, as energy and nutrient density increased, egg income and feed cost per hen increased, but income minus feed cost decreased. Overall, these results indicate that feeding Hy-Line W-36 hens increasing energy and nutrient-dense diets will increase egg production, egg weight, egg mass, feed efficiency, energy intake, BW, egg income, and feed cost, but decrease egg income minus feed cost. However, these benefits do not take effect in early production and seem to be most effective in later stages of the production cycle, perhaps "priming" the birds for better egg-production persistency with age.

[High-functioning autism spectrum disorders in adulthood]. / Autismusspektrumstörungen mit hohem Funktionsniveau im Erwachsenenalter.

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in the general population is approximately 1 %. Some individuals with high-functioning autism graduate from regular schools without autism having been diagnosed and problems only occur when the demands for social competence increase. Then patients often present with secondary psychiatric symptoms, such as depression, anxiety or interpersonal problems. At this time, typical autistic features, such as social interaction deficits, restricted interests and stereotypic behavior can be camouflaged by high compensatory skills, particularly in highly intelligent patients. Therefore, missed or wrong diagnoses are frequent. Interviews, questionnaires and neuropsychological tests might be used to support the diagnosis. In cases where there is evidence for a secondary cause of autistic symptoms, somatic disorders should be excluded. Pharmacological treatment should be symptom-oriented. Individualized psychotherapeutic approaches are becoming increasingly more available; however, pragmatic solutions often need to be deployed.

Evaluation of limit feeding varying levels of distillers dried grains with solubles in non-feed-withdrawal molt programs for laying hens.

An experiment was conducted with 672 Hy-Line W-36 Single Comb White Leghorn hens (69 wk of age) to evaluate the effects of feeding varying levels of corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) with corn, wheat middlings, and soybean hulls on long-term laying hen postmolt performance. The control molt treatment consisted of a 47% corn:47% soybean hulls (C:SH) diet fed ad libitum for 28 d. Hens fed the other 7 treatments were limit fed 65 g/hen per day for 16 d, and then fed 55 g/hen per day for 12 d. Hens on treatments 2 and 3 were fed 49% C:35% wheat middlings (WM) or SH:10% DDGS diets (C:WM:10DDGS, C:SH:10DDGS). Hens on treatments 4 and 5 were fed 49% C:25% WM or SH:20% DDGS diets (C:WM:20DDGS, C:SH:20DDGS). Those on treatments 6 and 7 were fed 47% C:47% DDGS (C:DDGS) or 47% WM:47% DDGS (WM:DDGS) diets. Those on treatment 8 were fed a 94% DDGS diet. At 28 d, all hens were fed a corn-soybean meal layer diet (16% CP) and production performance was measured for 36 wk. None of the hens fed the molt diets went completely out of production, and only the C:SH and C:SH:10DDGS molt diets decreased hen-day egg production to below 5% by wk 4 of the molt period. Postmolt egg production was lowest (P < 0.05) for the C:WM:20DDGS treatment. No differences (P > 0.05) in egg weights were detected among treatments throughout the postmolt period. In addition, no consistent differences were observed among treatments for egg mass throughout the postmolt period. Overall results of this study indicated that limit feeding diets containing DDGS at levels of 65 or 55 g/hen per day during the molt period did not cause hens to totally cease egg production.

Evaluation of limit feeding corn and distillers dried grains with solubles in non-feed-withdrawal molt programs for laying hens.

An experiment was conducted using 504 Hy-Line W-36 Single Comb White Leghorn hens (69 wk of age) randomly assigned to 1 of 7 treatments. These treatments consisted of a 47% corn:47% soy hulls diet (C:SH) fed ad libitum; a 94% corn diet fed at a rate of 36.3, 45.4, or 54.5 g/hen per day (CORN 36, CORN 45, and CORN 54, respectively); and a 94% corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) diet fed at the same rates as the previous corn diets (DDGS 36, DDGS 45, and DDGS 54, respectively) during the molt period of 28 d. The intent was to feed the DDGS diets for 28 d; however, all hens on these diets had very low feed intakes and greater than anticipated BW loss. Thus, they were switched to a 16% CP corn-soybean meal layer diet on d 19 of the molt period. At d 28, hens on all treatments were fed the same corn-soybean meal layer diet for 39 wk (73 to 112 wk of age). All DDGS diets and the CORN 36 diet resulted in total cessation of egg production during the molt period and egg production of hens fed the CORN 45, CORN 54, and C:SH diets had decreased to 3 and 4%, respectively, by d 28. Body weight loss during the 28-d molt period ranged from 14% for the CORN 54 diet to approximately 23% for the 3 DDGS diets. Postmolt egg production (5 to 43 wk) was higher for hens fed the DDGS molt diets than those fed the corn diets. There were no consistent differences in egg mass, egg-specific gravity, feed efficiency, or layer feed consumption among molt treatments for the postmolt period. These results indicate that limit feeding corn diet and DDGS diet in non-feed-withdrawal molt programs will yield long-term postmolt performance that is comparable to that observed by ad libitum feeding a C:SH diet.

[Theory of mind in schizophrenia: clinical aspects and empirical research]. / Theory of Mind bei Schizophrenien: Klinische und wissenschaftliche Aspekte.

The term Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the capacity to infer one's own and other persons' mental states. A substantial body of research has highlighted impaired ToM in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. There is good empirical evidence that ToM is specifically impaired in schizophrenia and that many psychotic symptoms--for instance, delusions of alien control and persecution--may best be understood in light of a disturbed capacity in patients to relate their own intentions to executing behavior, and to monitor others' intentions. However, it is still under debate if impaired ToM in schizophrenia is a state- or trait marker and whether patients could benefit from cognitive training in this domain. Recently, research has not only emphasized social cognitive deficits in patients, but has also focussed on interactions between ToM with language and other cognitive functions. Furthermore, interest in subprocesses of social cognition in psychotic spectrum disorders (e. g. schizotypy) is growing. The aim of this article is to line out clinical aspects of disturbed social cognition, to clarify terms used in this context as well as to present the latest research approaches into social cognition deficits.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: production--part 1.

During Egg Safety Action Plan hearings in Washington, DC, many questions were raised concerning the egg temperature (T) used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the T of eggs from oviposition through distribution. In part 1; researchers gathered data on internal and surface egg T from commercial egg production facilities. An infrared thermometer was used to rapidly measure surface T, and internal T was determined by probing individual eggs. The main effects were geographic region (state) and season evaluated in a factorial design. Egg T data were recorded in the production facilities in standardized comparisons. Regression analysis (P < 0.0001) showed that the R(2) (0.952) between infrared egg surface T and internal T was very high, and validated further use of the infrared thermometer. Hen house egg surface and internal T were significantly influenced by state, season, and the state x season interaction. Mean hen house egg surface T was 27.3 and 23.8 degrees C for summer and winter, respectively, with 29.2 and 26.2 degrees C for egg internal T (P < 0.0001). Hen house eggs from California had the lowest surface and internal T in winter among all the states (P < 0.0001), whereas the highest egg surface T were recorded during summer in North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas, and the highest internal T were recorded from Texas and Georgia. Cooling of warm eggs following oviposition was significantly influenced by season, state, and their interaction. Egg internal T when 3/4 cool was higher in summer vs. winter and higher in North Carolina and Pennsylvania compared with Iowa. The time required to 3/4 cool eggs was greater in winter than summer and greater in Iowa than in other states. These findings showed seasonal and state impacts on ambient T in the hen house that ultimately influenced egg surface and internal T. More important, they showed opportunities to influence cooling rate to improve internal and microbial egg quality.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: processing--part 2.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, shell egg processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with 2 random effects for season and geographic region and a fixed effect for operation type (inline or offline). For this report, internal and external egg temperature data were recorded at specific points during shell egg processing in the winter and summer months. In addition, internal egg temperatures were recorded in pre- and postshell egg processing cooler areas. There was a significant season x geographic region interaction (P < 0.05) for both surface and internal temperatures. Egg temperatures were lower in the winter vs. summer, but eggs gained in temperature from the accumulator to the postshell egg processing cooler. During shell egg processing, summer egg surface and internal temperatures were greater (P < 0.05) than during the winter. When examining the effect of shell egg processing time and conditions, it was found that 2.4 and 3.8 degrees C were added to egg surface temperatures, and 3.3 and 6.0 degrees C were added to internal temperatures in the summer and winter, respectively. Internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the preshell egg processing cooler area during the summer vs. winter, and internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the summer when eggs were (3/4) cool (temperature change required to meet USDA-Agricultural Marketing Service storage regulation of 7.2 degrees C) in the postshell egg processing area. However, the cooling rate was not different (P > 0.05) for eggs in the postshell egg processing cooler area in the summer vs. winter. Therefore, these data suggest that season of year and geographic location can affect the temperature of eggs during shell egg processing and should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: transportation--part 3.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised many questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study by researchers in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with random effects for season and a fixed effect for duration of the transport period (long or short haul). It was determined that processors used refrigerated transport trucks (REFER) as short-term storage (STS) in both the winter and summer. Therefore, this summary of data obtained from REFER also examines the impact of their use as STS. Egg temperature data were recorded for specific loads of eggs during transport to point of resale or distribution to retailers. To standardize data comparisons between loads, they were segregated between long and short hauls. The summer egg temperatures were higher in the STS and during delivery. Egg temperature was not significantly reduced during the STS phase. Egg temperature decreases were less (P < 0.0001) during short delivery hauls 0.6 degrees C than during long hauls 7.8 degrees C. There was a significant season x delivery interaction (P < 0.05) for the change in the temperature differences between the egg and ambient temperature indicated as the cooling potential. This indicated that the ambient temperature during long winter deliveries had the potential to increase egg temperature. The REFER used as STS did not appreciably reduce internal egg temperature. These data suggest that the season of year affects the temperature of eggs during transport. Eggs are appreciably cooled on the truck, during the delivery phase, which was contrary to the original supposition that egg temperatures would remain static during refrigerated transport. These data indicate that refrigerated transport should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Realistic views concerning poultry welfare.

The animal welfare (rights) issue we face today is not one that will be resolved through research or factual knowledge. It is an emotional issue that resides on philosophical beliefs that are often associated with the religion of an individual or his or her lack thereof. Individuals who oppose the use of animals for research, food, companionship, etc., based on personal feelings or philosophies, may never change their minds based on scientific facts. However, the opportunity we have is the minds of those people who have not yet made up their mind. We can instill in them a respect for life and a clear understanding that it is okay to utilize animals for companionship and for food production provided the animals are maintained under acceptable and reasonable conditions and that they are cared for in a humane manner. This issue will continue to be a tough battle, because, from past experience, animal rightists will sometimes stage animal abuse to prove their viewpoint. We must also realize that due to the nature of humans, not everyone who is responsible for animals, in both research and production settings, will properly care for them. Animal mistreatment or abuse is a major black eye for everyone, and it is always caused by individuals who do not handle animals in a humane and proper manner. However, we have to admit that humanity has reverted to some very deplorable states in history.

Molting layers--alternative methods and their effectiveness.

The molting of commercial layers has been under increased scrutiny by animal rights groups, who have said that this practice is highly stressful and one which negatively affects the welfare of the hen due to the initial period of fasting that has been used to stop egg production. In recent years, there has been a recognized need to develop practical alternatives to molting layers other than the use of fasting. Thus, the University of Illinois, University of Nebraska, North Carolina State University, and the University of California have all researched this area. In all of these studies, the methods involved comparing a normal fasting method (i.e., 5 to 13 d), to feeding low-energy and protein diets using ingredients such as wheat middlings, soybean hulls, and corn or diets with graded levels of added salt and without salt (University of Nebraska, University of California). The molt period (28 d) included full-feeding of these diets. In these studies, postmolt production performance for the nonfeed withdrawal techniques was comparable to the fasting method. Several researchers have also evaluated the behavioral repertoire of laying hens, which includes feeding, drinking, comfort, social, reproductive, and anti-predator behaviors. In addition, related behaviors such as aggression, escape-avoidance, and submission have been of particular interest as potential indicators of welfare during molting. In these studies, genetic selection, strain, density, or molt program do not appear to adversely influence the behavioral patterns during the molt. The behavior patterns displayed during a molt program appear consistent with the response to physiological changes that layers experience and do not appear to compromise the welfare status of the hens. Appetitive behaviors were not affected by strain but were affected by production phase and molting. Strain or production phase did not influence the frequency of aggressive and submissive acts. Thus, the use of alternative nonfeed withdrawal molting methods provide comparable laying hen well-being and may enhance the transition from a productive to a resting state.

Minimum phosphorus requirement of one-cycle and two-cycle (molted) hens.

In experiment 1 (one cycle), hens were fed diets containing 0.10, 0.115, 0.125, 0.135, 0.15, or 0.45% available P (AP) from 40 to 56 wk of age, with the last diet being a positive control. Egg production, egg mass, and BW were reduced (P < 0.05) by all lower AP levels except 0.15% AP when compared with the 0.45% AP treatment. In the second experiment (two cycles with a molt), hens were initially fed diets containing 0.10, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, 0.18, 0.20, or 0.45% AP from 21 to 63 wk of age. Diets containing 0.10, 0.12, and 0.14% AP were terminated at 35, 39, and 50 wk, respectively, due to low egg production and increased mortality. Hens fed 0.16% AP also had significantly lower production performance than hens fed 0.45% AP during the first cycle. Hens on the 0.16 to 0.45% AP treatments were induced molted at 64 wk of age by 10 d of feed removal. The hens were then returned to the same AP layer diet they had been fed from 21 to 63 wk. For the 68 to 108 wk postmolt second-cycle period, hens fed the 0.16 to 0.20% AP diets (166 to 209 mg/d) had significantly lower egg production, egg mass, and feed efficiency than hens fed 0.45% AP. The results of our study indicated that first-cycle hens required approximately 0.18% AP or 198 mg AP/hen per day, and molted hens in their second cycle had a requirement that was greater than 0.20% AP or 209 mg AP/hen per day.

Further evaluation of nonfeed removal methods for molting programs.

The objective of this study was to evaluate several nonfeed removal methods compared with feed removal for induced molting of laying hens. An experiment was conducted using 576 Dekalb White hens (69 wk of age) randomly assigned to 1 of 8 dietary treatments. Two of these treatments consisted of feed removal for 10 d followed by ad libitum access to a 16% CP, corn-soybean meal diet or a 94% corn diet for 18 d. The other 6 treatments provided ad libitum access for 28 d to diets containing 94% corn, 94% wheat middlings (WM), 71% WM: 23% corn, 47% WM: 47% corn, 95% corn gluten feed, and 94% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). At 28 d, all hens were fed a laying hen diet (16% CP), and production performance was measured for 40 wk. The 2 feed removal treatments resulted in total cessation of egg production within 6 d. Egg production of hens fed the 94% WM, 71% WM: 23% corn, corn, corn gluten feed, and 47% WM: 47% corn diets all decreased to 6% or less by d 12, 16, 19, 20, and 28, respectively. Egg production of hens fed DDGS never decreased below 18%. Body weight loss ranged from 10% (DDGS) to 26% (10-d feed removal), with the other treatments being similar at 17%. No consistent differences were observed among treatments throughout the 40-wk postmolt period for egg production, egg specific gravity, egg weight, egg yield, or feed efficiency. No differences were observed among feed removal treatments versus several nonfeed removal treatments for ovary and oviduct weights and blood heterophil:lymphocyte ratios during the molt period. In addition, interactive social behaviors were not different throughout the molt period between hens fed the 94% WM and those deprived of feed for 10 d. Our results indicate feeding WM, corn, corn gluten feed, and WM:corn diets are effective nonfeed removal methods for molting laying hens.

Interrelationship between environmental temperature and dietary nonphytate phosphorus in laying hens.

Four experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of phosphorus nutrition on laying hens exposed to heat stress (HS). Hens were fed their respective diet for at least 3 wk prior to initiation of each experiment to allow the hens fed low-P diets to become P deficient. In most experiments, hens housed in non-HS conditions were pair-fed to the HS hens to maintain equal feed intake. In experiments 1 and 2, two levels of nonphytate P (NPP; deficient at 0.10 or 0.16% vs. control at 0.45%) and two temperatures (constant thermoneutral at 21 degrees C or cyclic HS up to 35 degrees C) were evaluated. Low NPP significantly reduced feed intake and hen-day egg production, but the cyclic heat treatment had no effect on hen performance. Experiment 3 was similar to experiments 1 and 2 except that constant HS was implemented. Both constant HS and low dietary NPP reduced feed intake and egg production, and there was no significant interaction between HS and dietary NPP level. In experiment 4, hens were fed 0.10 or 0.45% NPP diets and exposed to a more severe HS (38 degrees C) for 8 h. Hens fed the deficient NPP level showed a 16% incidence of severe heat distress (unable to stand, unresponsive). Our results generally indicated that there was no interaction between dietary NPP level and HS in laying hens. However, subjecting hens that had been fed a P-deficient diet to an acute HS of 38 degrees C did increase the incidence of severe heat distress.

Interrelationship between environmental temperature and dietary nonphytate phosphorus in chicks.

Four levels of nonphytate P (NPP; 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5%; total P = 0.46, 0.56, 0.66, and 0.76%) and two temperatures (25 and 37 degrees C) were evaluated in chicks from 8 to 22 d. In experiment 1, crossbred male chicks (New Hampshire x Columbian) housed at 25 degrees C increased weight gain at all increasing NPP levels, but chicks exposed to 37 degrees C did not show increased weight gain beyond 0.3% NPP. In experiment 2, environmental temperature was not increased until d 15. Weight gain of crossbred male chicks fed the 0.2% NPP diet was similar at both temperatures, but chicks exposed to 37 degrees C had lower weight gains than chicks housed at 25 degrees C for all other NPP levels. On d 22 to 24, chicks that had been housed at 25 degrees C and fed 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5% NPP were moved to the 37 degrees C chamber to evaluate heat stress on older chicks. Chicks fed the 0.2% NPP diet showed 35% mortality within 6 h. In experiment 3, both male commercial (Ross x Ross) and crossbred chicks that had been housed at 25 degrees C and fed 0.2% NPP from 8 to 22 d showed increased signs of severe heat distress when exposed to 37 degrees C on d 22. Our results suggest that the NPP requirement for growth of 8-to-22-d-old chicks may be reduced by high temperature. However, a NPP deficiency may result in increased mortality or severe heat distress in older chicks that are exposed to an acute increase in temperature.

Evaluation of nonfeed removal methods for molting programs.

An experiment was conducted using 336 White Leghorn hens (60 wk of age) randomly assigned to one of four treatments that consisted of feed removal for 4 or 10 d or no feed removal with ad libitum access to 95% corn or 95% wheat middlings molt diets that contained supplemental minerals and vitamins. At the end of the 4- or 10-d feed removal period, hens on these treatments were provided with the corn molt diet for 24 or 18 d, respectively. Hens on the corn or wheat middlings treatments were fed the diets for 28 d. At d 28, hens on all treatments were fed a corn-soybean meal (16% CP) layer diet for 40 wk (64 to 104 wk of age). Both feed removal and the wheat middlings treatments resulted in total cessation of egg production within 8 d. Egg production of hens fed the corn molt diet had decreased to 3% by d 28. Body weight loss for hens fed the corn or wheat middlings diet was approximately 15 and 8% at d 28, respectively. Hens fed the wheat middlings diet returned to production slightly faster than hens on the other treatments. Postmolt egg production and egg mass (wk 5 to 44) were generally higher for the wheat middlings and 10-d feed removal treatments than for the corn or 4-d feed removal treatments. There were no consistent differences in mortality, egg weight, egg specific gravity, feed efficiency, and layer feed consumption among treatments. This research indicates that diets with high corn or wheat middlings, particularly wheat middlings, are effective nonfeed removal methods for molting hens.

Egg marketing in national supermarkets: egg quality--part 1.

Two surveys were conducted to determine the quality of eggs offered to consumers in large supermarkets in various regions of the US. The first survey was conducted in California (CA) in 1994 and included 38 samples of large (L) and extra large (XL) white eggs in 15 markets. Individual eggs were weighed, candled, and broken out for Haugh unit (HU) determination. Regional differences in age of eggs, the number of eggs below 55 HU, and the percentage of cracked eggs were observed. The second survey was conducted in California (CA), Illinois (IL), Pennsylvania (PA), Texas (TX), North Carolina (NC), and New England (NE). This study included brown and white eggs and samples from 115 stores in 38 cities. Significant age, egg weight, HU, and cracked egg differences were observed between states. Brown and white eggs were different relative to age and HU, but egg weights and cracked eggs were statistically the same. The two surveys, 1994 and 1996, within CA demonstrated very similar measurements when L-white eggs were compared.

Egg marketing in national supermarkets: specialty eggs--part 2.

Large eggs promoted as having one or more features beyond conventional white or brown shell eggs (specialty eggs) were evaluated for quality and price in a national retail study. Subtypes of specialty eggs included: nutritionally altered eggs, organic eggs, fertile eggs, eggs from welfare-managed hens, or hens fed all-vegetable diets. Extension Poultry Specialists in California (CA), Connecticut, Illinois, North Carolina, Pennsylvania and Texas conducted a survey of egg quality and price and compared 246 dozen specialty eggs with 390 dozen conventional white shell eggs during the summer of 1996. Age of the eggs based on carton dating indicated specialty eggs were older (16.5 d) than white eggs (11.7 d). Average egg weights for specialty compared to white were 60.2 and 59.6 g, respectively. Interior egg quality evaluations including albumen height, Haugh units (HU), and percentage HU <55, indicated white eggs were superior (5.0 mm, 67.5, and 10.6%, respectively) compared to specialty eggs (4.7 mm, 63.8, and 16.3%). Although the percentage of cracked eggs was similar between specialty and white eggs (5.4 and 5.7%), the percentage of leakers was threefold higher for the specialty eggs (1.0 vs. 0.3%). Egg price was substantially higher for the specialty eggs, averaging $2.18/dozen with a range from 0.88 to $4.38, compared to white eggs, averaging $1.23/dozen and ranging from 0.39 to $2.35.

Egg marketing in national supermarkets: products, packaging, and prices--part 3.

As part of a national retail egg quality study, the variety of shell eggs and egg products offered for sale, type of packaging, and price relationships were compared in five major metropolitan regions. A total of 81 stores in 28 cities were sampled in California (CA), Illinois (IL), North Carolina (NC), Texas (TX), and New England (NE). Data were recorded for the variety of brands, sizes, white or brown shell eggs, specialty eggs, liquid or frozen eggs, carton sizes, package labeling and coding, and price relationships of shell eggs, liquid, and frozen egg products displayed for sale. The total variety of shell eggs displayed per store was the greatest for CA and NE stores. Stores in CA and TX offered more (P < 0.05) variety of white shell eggs than did stores in the other states, whereas stores in NE displayed the greatest variety (P < 0.05) of brown shell eggs. The average number of liquid and frozen egg products was highest (P < 0.05) for NC stores. Packaging type, USDA labeling, and carton coding differed somewhat among states. The price per one dozen cartons of all white shell egg sizes was highest (P < 0.05) in CA stores, and the average liquid plus frozen egg product prices were higher in CA and NE stores compared to the other states. However, the ratio of liquid and frozen product prices to all large shell egg prices was among the lowest for CA and NC stores. These data indicate that product selection, packaging, and consumer prices for shell eggs and egg products varied considerably across five separate regions of the country.