Open Questions about the Roles of DnaA, Related Proteins, and Hyperstructure Dynamics in the Cell Cycle.

The DnaA protein has long been considered to play the key role in the initiation of chromosome replication in modern bacteria. Many questions about this role, however, remain unanswered. Here, we raise these questions within a framework based on the dynamics of hyperstructures, alias large assemblies of molecules and macromolecules that perform a function. In these dynamics, hyperstructures can (1) emit and receive signals or (2) fuse and separate from one another. We ask whether the DnaA-based initiation hyperstructure acts as a logic gate receiving information from the membrane, the chromosome, and metabolism to trigger replication; we try to phrase some of these questions in terms of DNA supercoiling, strand opening, glycolytic enzymes, SeqA, ribonucleotide reductase, the macromolecular synthesis operon, post-translational modifications, and metabolic pools. Finally, we ask whether, underpinning the regulation of the cell cycle, there is a physico-chemical clock inherited from the first protocells, and whether this clock emits a single signal that triggers both chromosome replication and cell division.

Research on DnaA in the early days.

The Escherichia coli chromosome is a circular double helix. DNA polymerase, therefore, cannot use it directly as a template for polymerization until it has first been unwound. The DnaA protein opens the chromosome at a unique and specific site (oriC), which allows the polymerase to begin DNA replication. François Jacob and Sydney Brenner predicted the existence of the initiator protein, DnaA, back in the early 1960s. In order to demonstrate the existence of the hypothetical initiator, identification and isolation of dnaA mutants were undertaken. In the following, I recount, in a historical setting, the original research done on the identification and isolation of dnaA mutants.

Trashing of single-stranded DNA generated during processing of arrested replication fork in E. coli.

We analyzed formation of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) related to SOS induction in nalidixilate (Nal)-treated Escherichia coli, using immunofluorescence microscopy accompanied by computer analysis. We found enhancement of both ssDNA concentrations and cells having ssDNA foci that often localized around cellpoles. Analyzing several mutants deficient in DNA repair or replication, we found, after Nal treatment, that recN, recA, uvrD and dnaB failed to increase ssDNA concentration and that recG and particularly ruvA only partially enhanced it. In Nal-treated recB mutant, despite its failure in SOS induction, ssDNA foci positive cells increased with a slight enhancement of its concentration. These observations suggest the existence of a cellular process that sequesters genotoxic ssDNA as inert form, offering a new concept for SOS suppressor genes action.

DNA replication defects in a mutant deficient in the thioredoxin homolog YbbN.

Escherichia coli contains two thioredoxins, Trx1 and Trx2, and a thioredoxin-like protein, YbbN, that displays both redox and chaperone properties. Since three out of the six proteins of the YbbN interactome (Butland et al., 2005) are components of DNA polymerase 3 holoenzyme (i.e. the ß-clamp DnaN, the θ subunit HolE and the δ' subunit HolB), we investigated whether the ybbN mutant presents DNA replication defects. We found that this mutant incorporates (3)H-thymidine at higher rates than the parental strain and displays overinitiation, hypermutator and filamentation phenotypes with the occurrence of anucleated cells. Moreover, YbbN functions as a bona fide chaperone in the refolding of the urea-unfolded ß-clamp. These results suggest that the DNA replication and cell division defects of the ybbN mutant might best be explained by chaperone functions of YbbN in the biogenesis of DNA polymerase 3 holoenzyme.

Generation of DNA-free Escherichia coli cells by 2-aminopurine requires mismatch repair and nonmethylated DNA.

Undirected mismatch repair initiated by the incorporation of the base analog 2-aminopurine kills DNA-methylation-deficient Escherichia coli dam cells by DNA double-strand breakage. Subsequently, the chromosomal DNA is totally degraded, resulting in DNA-free cells.

Localization of replication forks in wild-type and mukB mutant cells of Escherichia coli.

To examine the subcellular localization of the replication machinery in Escherichia coli, we have developed an immunofluorescence method that allows us to determine the subcellular location of newly synthesized DNA pulse-labeled with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU). Using this technique, we have analyzed growing cells. In wild-type cells that showed a single BrdU fluorescence signal, the focus was located in the middle of the cell; in cells with two signals, the foci were localized at positions equivalent to 1/4 and 3/4 of the cell length. The formation of BrdU foci was dependent upon ongoing chromosomal replication. A mutant lacking MukB, which is required for proper partitioning of sister chromosomes, failed to maintain the ordered localization of BrdU foci: (1) a single BrdU focus tended to be localized at a pole-proximal region of the nucleoid, and (2) a focus was often found to consist of two replicating chromosomes. Thus, the positioning of replication forks is affected by the disruption of the mukB gene.

Bacterial sex: playing voyeurs 50 years later.

The concept of chromosomes with a ring structure was born during the early studies of bacterial sexuality, and the discovery of fertility factors- episomes or plasmids-provided much later the key tools for gene cloning and biotechnology. But the plasmid-mediated transfer of antibiotic and other resistances, as well as pathogenicity, has served bacteria well in their own adaptive evolution.

Isolation of a new hemimethylated DNA binding protein which regulates dnaA gene expression.

In this report, we show that yccV, a gene of unknown function, encodes a protein having an affinity for a hemimethylated oriC DNA and that the protein negatively controls dnaA gene expression in vivo.

Specificity of elongation factor EF-TU for hydrophobic peptides.

The elongation factor EF-Tu carries aminoacyl-tRNAs to the A-site of the ribosome during the elongation process of protein biosynthesis. We, and others, have recently reported that the Escherichia coli EF-Tu interacts with unfolded and denatured proteins and behaves like a chaperone in protein folding and protection against protein thermal denaturation. In this study, we have identified EF-Tu binding sites in protein substrates by screening cellulose-bound peptides scanning the sequences of several proteins. The binding motifs recognized by EF-Tu in protein substrates are also recognized by the chaperone DnaK and mainly consist of hydrophobic clusters. EF-Tu interacts as efficiently as DnaK with the membrane spanning sequence of the membrane protein phospholemman and with the signal sequence of alkaline phosphatase. It interacts less efficiently with several other hydrophobic clusters of lysozyme and alkaline phosphatase, which are also DnaK substrates and fails to bind to several DnaK binding sites. Our results suggest that EF-Tu, like DnaK, interacts albeit more weakly with the hydrophobic regions of substrate protein and are consistent with the hypothesis that it possesses chaperone properties.