Experimental and theoretical study on converting myoglobin into a stable domain-swapped dimer by utilizing a tight hydrogen bond network at the hinge region.

Various factors, such as helical propensity and hydrogen bonds, control protein structures. A frequently used model protein, myoglobin (Mb), can perform 3D domain swapping, in which the loop at the hinge region is converted to a helical structure in the dimer. We have previously succeeded in obtaining monomer-dimer equilibrium in the native state by introducing a high α-helical propensity residue, Ala, to the hinge region. In this study, we focused on another factor that governs the protein structure, hydrogen bonding. X-ray crystal structures and thermodynamic studies showed that the myoglobin dimer was stabilized over the monomer when keeping His82 to interact with Lys79 and Asp141 through water moleclues and mutating Leu137, which was located close to the H-bond network at the dimer hinge region, to a hydrophilic amino acid (Glu or Asp). Molecular dynamics simulation studies confirmed that the number of H-bonds increased and the α-helices at the hinge region became more rigid for mutants with a tighter H-bond network, supporting the hypothesis that the myoglobin dimer is stabilized when the H-bond network at the hinge region is enhanced. This demonstrates the importance and utility of hydrogen bonds for designing a protein dimer from its monomer with 3D domain swapping.

A single amino acid substitution converts a histidine decarboxylase to an imidazole acetaldehyde synthase.

Histidine decarboxylase (HDC; EC 4.1.1.22), an enzyme that catalyzes histamine synthesis with high substrate specificity, is a member of the group II pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) -dependent decarboxylase family. Tyrosine is a conserved residue among group II PLP-dependent decarboxylases. Human HDC has a Y334 located on a catalytically important loop at the active site. In this study, we demonstrated that a HDC Y334F mutant is capable of catalyzing the decarboxylation-dependent oxidative deamination of histidine to yield imidazole acetaldehyde. Replacement of the active-site Tyr with Phe in group II PLP-dependent decarboxylases, including mammalian aromatic amino acid decarboxylase, plant tyrosine/DOPA decarboxylase, and plant tryptophan decarboxylase, is expected to result in the same functional change, given that a Y-to-F substitution at the corresponding residue (number 260) in the HDC of Morganella morganii, another group II PLP-dependent decarboxylase, yielded the same effect. Thus, it was suggested that the loss of the OH moiety from the active-site Tyr residue of decarboxylase uniquely converts the enzyme to an aldehyde synthase.

Biochemical, spectroscopic and X-ray structural analysis of deuterated multicopper oxidase CueO prepared from a new expression construct for neutron crystallography.

Multicopper oxidases oxidize various phenolic and nonphenolic compounds by using molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor to produce water. A multicopper oxidase protein, CueO, from Escherichia coli is involved in copper homeostasis in the bacterial cell. Although X-ray crystallographic studies have been conducted, the reduction mechanism of oxygen and the proton-transfer pathway remain unclear owing to the difficulty in identifying H atoms from X-ray diffraction data alone. To elucidate the reaction mechanism using neutron crystallography, a preparation system for obtaining large, high-quality single crystals of deuterated CueO was developed. Tiny crystals were obtained from the deuterated CueO initially prepared from the original construct. The X-ray crystal structure of the deuterated CueO showed that the protein contained an incompletely truncated signal sequence at the N-terminus, which resulted in the heterogeneity of the protein sample for crystallization. Here, a new CueO expression system that had an HRV3C cleavage site just after the signal sequence was constructed. Deuterated CueO from the new construct was expressed in cells cultured in deuterated algae-extract medium and the signal sequence was completely eliminated by HRV3C protease. The deuteration level of the purified protein was estimated by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry to be at least 83.2% compared with nondeuterated protein. Nondeuterated CueO crystallized in space group P21, with unit-cell parameters a = 49.51, b = 88.79, c = 53.95 Å, ß = 94.24°, and deuterated CueO crystallized in space group P212121, with unit-cell parameters a = 49.91, b = 106.92, c = 262.89 Å. The crystallographic parameters for the crystals of the new construct were different from those previously reported for nondeuterated crystals. The nondeuterated and deuterated CueO from the new construct had similar UV-Vis spectra, enzymatic activities and overall structure and geometry of the ligands of the Cu atoms in the active site to those of previously reported CueO structures. These results indicate that the CueO protein prepared using the new construct is suitable for further neutron diffraction studies.

Exogenous acetate ion reaches the type II copper centre in CueO through the water-excretion channel and potentially affects the enzymatic activity.

The acetate-bound form of the type II copper was found in the X-ray structure of the multicopper oxidase CueO crystallized in acetate buffer in addition to the conventional OH(-)-bound form as the major resting form. The acetate ion was retained bound to the type II copper even after prolonged exposure of a CueO crystal to X-ray radiation, which led to the stepwise reduction of the Cu centres. However, in this study, when CueO was crystallized in citrate buffer the OH(-)-bound form was present exclusively. This fact shows that an exogenous acetate ion reaches the type II Cu centre through the water channel constructed between domains 1 and 3 in the CueO molecule. It was also found that the enzymatic activity of CueO is enhanced in the presence of acetate ions in the solvent water.

Crystal structure of a hypothetical protein, TTHA0829 from Thermus thermophilus HB8, composed of cystathionine-ß-synthase (CBS) and aspartate-kinase chorismate-mutase tyrA (ACT) domains.

TTHA0829 from Thermus thermophilus HB8 has a molecular mass of 22,754 Da and is composed of 210 amino acid residues. The expression of TTHA0829 is remarkably elevated in the latter half of logarithmic growth phase. TTHA0829 can form either a tetrameric or dimeric structure, and main-chain folding provides an N-terminal cystathionine-ß-synthase (CBS) domain and a C-terminal aspartate-kinase chorismate-mutase tyrA (ACT) domain. Both CBS and ACT are regulatory domains to which a small ligand molecule can bind. The CBS domain is found in proteins from organisms belonging to all kingdoms and is observed frequently as two or four tandem copies. This domain is considered as a small intracellular module with a regulatory function and is typically found adjacent to the active (or functional) site of several enzymes and integral membrane proteins. The ACT domain comprises four ß-strands and two α-helices in a ßαßßαß motif typical of intracellular small molecule binding domains that help control metabolism, solute transport and signal transduction. We discuss the possible role of TTHA0829 based on its structure and expression pattern. The results imply that TTHA0829 acts as a cell-stress sensor or a metabolite acceptor.

Domain swapping oligomerization of thermostable c-type cytochrome in E. coli cells.

Knowledge on domain swapping in vitro is increasing, but domain swapping may not occur regularly in vivo, and its information in cells is limited. Herein, we show that domain-swapped oligomers of a thermostable c-type cytochrome, Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cyt c552, are formed in E. coli which expresses cyt c552. The region containing the N-terminal α-helix and heme was domain-swapped between protomers in the dimer formed in E. coli. The amount of cyt c552 oligomers increased in E. coli as the cyt c552 concentration was increased, whereas that of high-order oligomers decreased in the order of decrease in protein stability, indicating that domain swapping decreases in cells when the protein stability decreases. Apo cyt c552 was detected in the cyt c552 oligomer formed in E. coli, but not in that of the A5F/M11V/Y32F/Y41E/I76V mutant. The cyt c552 oligomer containing its apo protein may form at the periplasm, since the apo protein detected by mass measurements did not contain the signal peptide. These results show that domain-swapped cyt c552 oligomers were formed in E. coli, owing to the stability of the transient oligomer containing the apo protein before heme attachment. This is an indication that exceedingly stable proteins may have disadvantages forming domain-swapped oligomers in cells.

Oligomerization enhancement and two domain swapping mode detection for thermostable cytochrome c552 via the elongation of the major hinge loop.

High-order oligomers of Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cytochrome c552 increased with the insertion of more Gly residues between Ala18 and Lys19 at the major hinge loop of the wild-type protein. N-Terminal domain swapping and C-terminal domain swapping were elucidated by using X-ray crystallography for the mutant with the insertion of three Gly residues at the hinge loop.

Crystallographic analysis of FAD-dependent glucose dehydrogenase.

An FAD-dependent glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) from Aspergillus terreus was purified and crystallized at 293 K using the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method. A data set was collected to a resolution of 1.6 Šfrom a single crystal at 100 K using a rotating-anode X-ray source. The crystal belonged to space group P21, with unit-cell parameters a = 56.56, b = 135.74, c = 74.13 Å, ß = 90.37°. The asymmetric unit contained two molecules of GDH. The Matthews coefficient was calculated to be 2.2 Å(3) Da(-1) and the solvent content was estimated to be 44%.

Structural insights into the O2 reduction mechanism of multicopper oxidase.

Multicopper oxidases are ubiquitous enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of various substrates via the reduction of O2 to H2O. The enzymes contain a common active centre consisting of four copper ions. The key component for O2 reduction is the trinuclear copper centre comprising one type II and a pair of type III copper ions. Although the crystal structures of many multicopper oxidases have been determined by X-ray crystallography, the geometric parameters in the trinuclear copper centre are different for each study. Recent studies have revealed that the redox state of copper ions is altered by X-ray irradiation. The reported crystal structures may represent mixtures of different stages of the catalytic reactions. In this review, we discuss recent findings related to the structure of the active site in multicopper oxidases.

Domain-swapped dimer of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome c551: structural insights into domain swapping of cytochrome c family proteins.

Cytochrome c (cyt c) family proteins, such as horse cyt c, Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome c551 (PA cyt c551), and Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cytochrome c552 (HT cyt c552), have been used as model proteins to study the relationship between the protein structure and folding process. We have shown in the past that horse cyt c forms oligomers by domain swapping its C-terminal helix, perturbing the Met-heme coordination significantly compared to the monomer. HT cyt c552 forms dimers by domain swapping the region containing the N-terminal α-helix and heme, where the heme axial His and Met ligands belong to different protomers. Herein, we show that PA cyt c551 also forms domain-swapped dimers by swapping the region containing the N-terminal α-helix and heme. The secondary structures of the M61A mutant of PA cyt c551 were perturbed slightly and its oligomer formation ability decreased compared to that of the wild-type protein, showing that the stability of the protein secondary structures is important for domain swapping. The hinge loop of domain swapping for cyt c family proteins corresponded to the unstable region specified by hydrogen exchange NMR measurements for the monomer, although the swapping region differed among proteins. These results show that the unstable loop region has a tendency to become a hinge loop in domain-swapped proteins.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of the NAD+-reducing [NiFe] hydrogenase from Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus TH-1.

NAD+-reducing [NiFe] hydrogenases catalyze the oxidoreduction of dihydrogen concomitant with the interconversion of NAD+ and NADH. Here, the isolation, purification and crystallization of the NAD+-reducing [NiFe] hydrogenase from Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus TH-1 are reported. Crystals of the NAD+-reducing [NiFe] hydrogenase were obtained within one week from a solution containing polyethylene glycol using the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method and micro-seeding. The crystal diffracted to 2.58 Šresolution and belonged to space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a=131.43, b=189.71, c=124.59 Å, ß=109.42°. Assuming the presence of two NAD+-reducing [NiFe] hydrogenase molecules in the asymmetric unit, VM was calculated to be 2.2 Å3 Da(-1), which corresponds to a solvent content of 43%. Initial phases were determined by the single-wavelength anomalous dispersion method using the anomalous signal from the Fe atoms.

Change in structure and ligand binding properties of hyperstable cytochrome c555 from Aquifex aeolicus by domain swapping.

Cytochrome c555 from hyperthermophilic bacteria Aquifex aeolicus (AA cyt c555 ) is a hyperstable protein belonging to the cyt c protein family, which possesses a unique long 310 -α-310 helix containing the heme-ligating Met61. Herein, we show that AA cyt c555 forms dimers by swapping the region containing the extra 310 -α-310 helix and C-terminal α-helix. The asymmetric unit of the crystal of dimeric AA cyt c555 contained two dimer structures, where the structure of the hinge region (Val53-Lys57) was different among all four protomers. Dimeric AA cyt c555 dissociated to monomers at 92 ± 1°C according to DSC measurements, showing that the dimer was thermostable. According to CD measurements, the secondary structures of dimeric AA cyt c555 were maintained at pH 2.2-11.0. CN(-) and CO bound to dimeric AA cyt c555 in the ferric and ferrous states, respectively, owing to the flexibility of the hinge region close to Met61 in the dimer, whereas these ligands did not bind to the monomer under the same conditions. In addition, CN(-) and CO bound to the oxidized and reduced dimer at neutral pH and a wide range of pH (pH 2.2-11.0), respectively, in a wide range of temperature (25-85°C), owing to the thermostability and pH tolerance of the dimer. These results show that the ligand binding character of hyperstable AA cyt c555 changes upon dimerization by domain swapping.

Formation of domain-swapped oligomer of cytochrome C from its molten globule state oligomer.

Many proteins, including cytochrome c (cyt c), have been shown to form domain-swapped oligomers, but the factors governing the oligomerization process remain unrevealed. We obtained oligomers of cyt c by refolding cyt c from its acid molten globule state to neutral pH state under high protein and ion concentrations. The amount of oligomeric cyt c obtained depended on the nature of the anion (chaotropic or kosmotropic) in the solution: ClO4(-) (oligomers, 11% ± 2% (heme unit)), SCN(-) (10% ± 2%), I(-) (6% ± 2%), NO3(-) (3% ± 1%), Br(-) (2% ± 1%), Cl(-) (2% ± 1%), and SO4(2-) (3% ± 1%) for refolding of 2 mM cyt c (anion concentration 125 mM). Dimeric cyt c obtained by refolding from the molten globule state exhibited a domain-swapped structure, in which the C-terminal α-helices were exchanged between protomers. According to small-angle X-ray scattering measurements, approximately 25% of the cyt c molecules were dimerized in the molten globule state containing 125 mM ClO4(-). These results indicate that a certain amount of molten globule state oligomers of cyt c convert to domain-swapped oligomers during refolding and that the intermolecular interactions necessary for domain swapping are present in the molten globule state.

New insights into the catalytic active-site structure of multicopper oxidases.

Structural models determined by X-ray crystallography play a central role in understanding the catalytic mechanism of enzymes. However, X-ray radiation generates hydrated electrons that can cause significant damage to the active sites of metalloenzymes. In the present study, crystal structures of the multicopper oxidases (MCOs) CueO from Escherichia coli and laccase from a metagenome were determined. Diffraction data were obtained from a single crystal under low to high X-ray dose conditions. At low levels of X-ray exposure, unambiguous electron density for an O atom was observed inside the trinuclear copper centre (TNC) in both MCOs. The gradual reduction of copper by hydrated electrons monitored by measurement of the Cu K-edge X-ray absorption spectra led to the disappearance of the electron density for the O atom. In addition, the size of the copper triangle was enlarged by a two-step shift in the location of the type III coppers owing to reduction. Further, binding of O2 to the TNC after its full reduction was observed in the case of the laccase. Based on these novel structural findings, the diverse resting structures of the MCOs and their four-electron O2-reduction process are discussed.

Role of the C-terminal extension stacked on the re-face of the isoalloxazine ring moiety of the flavin adenine dinucleotide prosthetic group in ferredoxin-NADP(+) oxidoreductase from Bacillus subtilis.

Ferredoxin-NADP(+) oxidoreductase [EC 1.18.1.2] from Bacillus subtilis (BsFNR) is homologous to the bacterial NADPH-thioredoxin reductase, but possesses a unique C-terminal extension that covers the re-face of the isoalloxazine ring moiety of the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) prosthetic group. In this report, we utilize BsFNR mutants depleted of their C-terminal residues to examine the importance of the C-terminal extension in reactions with NADPH and ferredoxin (Fd) from B. subtilis by spectroscopic and steady-state reaction analyses. The depletions of residues Y313 to K332 (whole C-terminal extension region) and S325 to K332 (His324 intact) resulted in significant increases in the catalytic efficiency with NADPH in diaphorase assay with ferricyanide, whereas Km values for ferricyanide were increased. In the cytochrome c reduction assay in the presence of B. subtilis ferredoxin, the S325-K332 depleted mutant displayed a significant decrease in the turnover rate with an Fd concentration range of 1-10 µM. The Y313-K332 depleted mutant demonstrated an increase in the rate of the direct reduction of horse heart cytochrome c in the absence of Fd. These data indicated that depletion of the C-terminal extension plays an important role in the reaction of BsFNR with ferredoxin.

Formation of oligomeric cytochrome c during folding by intermolecular hydrophobic interaction between N- and C-terminal α-helices.

We have previously shown that horse cytochrome c (cyt c) forms oligomers by domain swapping its C-terminal α-helix when interacting with ethanol. Although folding of cyt c has been studied extensively, formation of domain-swapped oligomers of cyt c during folding has never been reported. We found that domain-swapped oligomeric cyt c is produced during refolding from its guanidinium ion-induced unfolded state at high protein concentrations and low temperatures. The obtained dimer exhibited a domain-swapped structure exchanging the C-terminal α-helical region between molecules. The extent of dimer formation decreased significantly for the folding of C-terminal cyt c mutants with reduced hydrophobicity achieved by replacement of hydrophobic residues with Gly in the C-terminal region, whereas a large amount of heterodimers was generated for the folding of a mixture of N- and C-terminal mutants. These results show that cyt c oligomers are formed through intermolecular hydrophobic interaction between the N- and C-terminal α-helices during folding. A slow phase (4-5 s) was observed in addition to a 400-500 ms phase during folding of a high concentration of cyt c in the presence of 1.17 M guanidine hydrochloride. The fast phase is attributed to the intramolecular ligand exchange process, and we attribute the slow phase to the ligand exchange process in oligomers. These results show that it is important to consider formation of domain-swapped oligomeric proteins when folding at high protein concentrations.

Crystal structure of the CueO mutants at Glu506, the key amino acid located in the proton transfer pathway for dioxygen reduction.

Glu506 involved in the hydrogen bond network leading from solvent waters to the trinuclear copper center in a multicopper oxidase, CueO plays a crucial role to transport protons in the four-electron reduction of dioxygen to water. We performed X-ray crystal structure analyses of the Glu506Ala and Glu506Ile mutants, showing the formation of a compensatory proton transport pathway with only water molecules and a disruption of the hydrogen bond network due to the bulky side chain, respectively. We discuss the efficiency of proton transport through the hydrogen bond network based on the present results and our previous modification of the proton transport pathway by the Glu506 to Gln mutation, which have allowed us to trap and characterize the reaction intermediates.

Photosensitivity of the Ni-A state of [NiFe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F with visible light.

[NiFe] hydrogenase catalyzes reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen. Its active site is constructed of a hetero dinuclear Ni-Fe complex, and the oxidation state of the Ni ion changes according to the redox state of the enzyme. We found that the Ni-A state (an inactive unready, oxidized state) of [NiFe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F (DvMF) is light sensitive and forms a new state (Ni-AL) with irradiation of visible light. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) bands at 1956, 2084 and 2094 cm(-1) of the Ni-A state shifted to 1971, 2086 and 2098 cm(-1) in the Ni-AL state. The g-values of g(x)=2.30, g(y)=2.23 and g(z)=2.01 for the signals in the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum of the Ni-A state at room temperature varied for -0.009, +0.012 and +0.010, respectively, upon light irradiation. The light-induced Ni-AL state converted back immediately to the Ni-A state under dark condition at room temperature. These results show that the coordination structure of the Fe site of the Ni-A state of [NiFe] hydrogenase is perturbed significantly by light irradiation with relatively small coordination change at the Ni site.

Domain swapping of the heme and N-terminal α-helix in Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cytochrome c(552) dimer.

Oxidized horse cytochrome c (cyt c) has been shown to oligomerize by domain swapping its C-terminal helix successively. We show that the structural and thermodynamic properties of dimeric Hydrogenobacter thermophilus (HT) cytochrome c(552) (cyt c(552)) and dimeric horse cyt c are different, although both proteins belong to the cyt c superfamily. Optical absorption and circular dichroism spectra of oxidized dimeric HT cyt c(552) were identical to the corresponding spectra of its monomer. Dimeric HT cyt c(552) exhibited a domain-swapped structure, where the N-terminal α-helix together with the heme was exchanged between protomers. Since a relatively strong H-bond network was formed at the loop around the heme-coordinating Met, the C-terminal α-helix did not dissociate from the rest of the protein in dimeric HT cyt c(552). The packing of the amino acid residues important for thermostability in monomeric HT cyt c(552) were maintained in its dimer, and thus, dimeric HT cyt c(552) exhibited high thermostability. Although the midpoint redox potential shifted from 240 ± 2 to 213 ± 2 mV by dimerization, it was maintained relatively high. Ethanol has been shown to decrease both the activation enthalpy and activation entropy for the dissociation of the dimer to monomers from 140 ± 9 to 110 ± 5 kcal/mol and 310 ± 30 to 270 ± 20 cal/(mol·K), respectively. Enthalpy change for the dissociation of the dimer to monomers was positive (14 ± 2 kcal/mol per protomer unit). These results give new insights into factors governing the swapping region and thermodynamic properties of domain swapping.