The complex effect of dissolved organic carbon on desorption of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances from soil under alkaline conditions.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are contaminants of emerging concern, yet the understanding of factors that control their leaching and release from contaminated soils remains limited. This study aimed to investigate the impact of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) on the release of PFASs-specifically, perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)from soils contaminated by aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). Batch aqueous leaching experiments were conducted on AFFF-contaminated soils under alkaline solution conditions (pH 9.5, 10.5, and 12) as it enhances leaching of both PFAS and DOC. Leaching of PFOS was significantly increased under alkaline conditions. Although the leaching of PFAS generally increased with pH, PFOS appeared to be more retained under the very alkaline pH conditions used in this study. At the same solution pH, leaching of PFOS and DOC was less in Ca(OH)2 than in NaOH. The retention of PFOS under these conditions may be attributable to the shielding of the negative charge of the soil components and colloids (e.g., DOC and clay minerals) in the leachates and/or the screening of negative charges on head groups of PFOS due to the high concentration of divalent cations. Solution chemistry affected desorption of PFOS more than PFHxS and PFOA. The study highlights that the influence of DOC on PFAS leaching and transport can be very complex, and depends on leachate chemistry (e.g., pH and cation type), PFAS chemistry, the magnitude of PFAS contamination and factors that influence the solid:liquid partitioning of organic carbon in soil.

Effect of heavy metal co-contaminants on the sorption of thirteen anionic per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soils.

Understanding the sorption behavior of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soils are essential for assessing their mobility and risk in the environment. Heavy metals often coexist with PFAS depending on the source and history of contamination. In this study, we investigated the effect of heavy metal co-contaminants (Pb2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+) on the sorption of 13 anionic PFAS with different perfluorocarbon chain length (C3-C9) in two soils with different properties. Results revealed that Pb2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ had little effect on the sorption of most short-chain compounds, while the presence of these heavy metals enhanced the sorption of long-chain PFAS in two soils. The distribution coefficients (Kd) of several long-chain PFAS linearly increased with increasing concentrations of heavy metal, especially in the presence of Pb2+ (ΔKd/Δ [Pb2+] > 3 for PFOS and PFNA vs <1 for PFPeS and PFHxS). While several mechanisms may have contributed to the enhancement of sorption of PFAS, the heavy metals most likely contributed through enhanced hydrophobic interactions of PFAS by neutralizing the negative charge of adsorption surfaces in soils and thus making it more favorable for their partitioning onto the solid phase. Moreover, the increase in the concentrations of heavy metals led to a decrease in the pH of the system and promoted sorption of long-chain compounds, especially in soil with lower organic carbon content. Overall, this study provides evidence that the presence of co-existing heavy metal cations in soils can significantly enhance the sorption of long-chain PFAS onto soil, thereby potentially limiting their mobility in the environment.

Quantification of the variability and penetration of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances through a concrete pad.

Historical use of aqueous film forming foams (AFFF) containing per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) for fire-fighting activities has contributed to widespread contamination of infrastructure which can represent an ongoing source of PFAS to the surrounding environment. A concrete fire training pad with historical use of Ansulite and Lightwater AFFF formulations had PFAS concentrations measured to quantify spatial variability of PFAS within the pad. Surface chips and whole cores of concrete through to the underlying aggregate base were collected over the 24 × 9 m concrete pad and depth profiles of PFAS concentrations in nine cores were analysed. PFOS and PFHxS dominated the PFAS for surface samples, along the depth profile of cores and in the underlying plastic and aggregate material, with substantial variability in the concentrations of PFAS in the samples. Although there was variability of individual PFAS along the depth profile, higher surface concentrations of PFAS generally followed the designed movement of water across the pad. Total oxidisable precursor (TOP) assessments of one core indicated additional PFAS were present along the entire length of the core. This study highlights concentrations of PFAS (up to low µg/kg) from historical use of AFFF can occur throughout concrete, with the variable concentrations throughout the profile.

Physical and chemical properties of carbon-based sorbents that affect the removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from solution and soil.

Removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from water or their immobilization in soil using carbon-based sorbents is one of the cost-effective techniques. Considering the variety of carbon-based sorbents, identifying the key sorbent properties responsible for PFASs removal from solution or immobilization in the soil can assist in the selection of the best sorbents for management of contaminated sites. This study evaluated the performance of 28 carbon-based sorbents including granular and powdered activated carbon (GAC and PAC), mixed mode carbon mineral material, biochars, and graphene-based materials (GNBs). The sorbents were characterized for a range of physical and chemical properties. PFASs' sorption from an AFFF-spiked solution was examined via a batch experiment, while their ability to immobilize PFASs in soil was tested following mixing, incubation and extraction using the Australian Standard Leaching Procedure. Both soil and solution were treated with 1 % w/w sorbents. Comparing different carbon-based materials, PAC, mixed mode carbon mineral material and GAC were the most effective in sorbing PFASs in both solution and soil. Among the different physical characteristics measured, the sorption of long-chain and more hydrophobic PFASs in both soil and solution was best correlated with sorbent surface area measured using methylene blue, which highlights the importance of mesopores in PFASs sorption. Iodine number was found to be a better indicator of the sorption of short-chain and more hydrophilic PFASs from solution but was found to be poorly correlated with PFASs immobilization in soil for activated carbons. Sorbents with a net positive charge performed better than those with a net negative charge, or no net charge. This study showed that surface area measured by methylene blue and surface charge are the best indicators of sorbent performance with respect to sorption/reducing leaching of PFASs. These properties may be helpful in selecting sorbents for PFASs remediation of soils/waters.

Stabilisation of PFAS in soils: Long-term effectiveness of carbon-based soil amendments.

Immobilisation/stabilisation is one of the most developed and studied approaches for treating soils contaminated with per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). However, its application has been inhibited by insufficient understanding of the effectiveness of added soil sorbents over time. Herein, we present results on the effectiveness of select carbon-based sorbents, over 4 years (longevity) and multiple laboratory leaching conditions (durability). Standard batch leaching tests simulating aggressive, worst-case scenario conditions for leaching (i.e., shaking for 24-48 h at high liquid/solid ratios) were employed to test longevity and durability of stabilisation in clay-loam and sandy-loam soils historically contaminated with PFAS (2 and 14 mg/kg ∑28 PFAS). The different sorbents, which were applied at 1-6% (w/w), reduced leaching of PFAS from the soils to varying degrees. Among the 5 sorbents tested, initial assessments completed 1 week after treatment revealed that 2 powdered activated carbon (PAC) sorbents and 1 biochar were able to reduce leaching of PFAS in the soil by at least 95%. Four years after treatment, the performance of the PAC sorbents did not significantly change, whilst colloidal AC improved and was able to reduce leaching of PFAS by at least 94%. The AC-treated soils also appeared to be durable and achieved at least 95% reduction in PFAS leaching under repetitive leaching events (5 times extraction) and with minimal effect of pH (pH 4-10.5). In contrast, the biochars were affected by aging and were at least 22% less effective in reducing PFAS leaching across a range of leaching conditions. Sorbent performance was generally consistent with the sorbent's physical and chemical characteristics. Overall, the AC sorbents used in this study appeared to be better than the biochars in stabilising PFAS in the long term.

Formation of disinfection by-products from microplastics, tire wear particles, and other polymer-based materials.

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed through the disinfection of water containing precursors such as natural organic matter or anthropogenic compounds (e.g., pharmaceuticals and pesticides). Due to the ever increasing use of plastics, elastomers, and other polymers in our daily lives, polymer-based materials (PBMs) are detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in water and wastewater. The present review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the contribution of PBMs - including elastomers, tire waste, polyelectrolytes, and microplastics - as precursors of DBPs in water and wastewater. Literature shows that the presence of PBMs can lead to the leaching of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and subsequent formation of DBPs upon disinfection in aqueous media. The quantity and type of DBPs formed strongly depends on the type of polymer, its concentration, its age, water salinity, and disinfection conditions such as oxidant dosage, pH, temperature, and contact time. DOM leaching from elastomers and tire waste was shown to form N-nitrosodimethylamine up to concerning levels of 930 ng/L and 466,715 ng/L, respectively upon chemical disinfection under laboratory conditions. Polyelectrolytes can also react with chemical disinfectants to form toxic DBPs. Recent findings indicate trihalomethanes formation potential of plastics can be as high as 15,990 µg/L based on the maximum formation potential under extreme conditions. Our analysis highlights an overlooked contribution of DOM leaching from PBMs as DBP precursors during disinfection of water and wastewater. Further studies need to be conducted to ascertain the extent of this contribution in real water and wastewater treatment plants.

The efficacy of soil washing for the remediation of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the field.

This paper aims to describe the performance of a soil washing plant (SWP) for remediating a per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)-contaminated soil with a high clay content (61%). The SWP used both physical and chemical processes; fractionation of the soil particles by size and partitioning of PFASs into the aqueous phase to remove PFASs from the soil. Contaminated water was treated in series with granulated activated carbon (GAC) and ion-exchange resin and reused within the SWP. Approximately 2200 t (dry weight) of PFAS-contaminated soil was treated in 25 batches of 90 t each, with a throughput of approximately 11 t soil/hr. Efficiency of the SWP was measured by observed decreases in total and leachable concentrations of PFASs in the soil. Average removal efficiencies (RE) were up to 97.1% for perfluorocarboxylic acids and 94.9% for perfluorosulfonic acids. REs varied among different PFASs depending on their chemistry (functional head group, carbon chain length) and were independent of the total PFAS concentrations in each soil batch. Mass balance analysis found approximately 90% of the PFAS mass in the soil was transferred to the wash solution and > 99.9% of the PFAS mass in the wash solution was transferred onto the GAC without any breakthrough.

Model-based identification of vadose zone controls on PFAS mobility under semi-arid climate conditions.

Contamination through per-and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have occurred globally in soil and groundwater systems at military, airport and industrial sites due to the often decades-long periodic application of firefighting foams. At PFAS contaminated sites, the unsaturated soil horizon often serves as a long-term source for sustained PFAS contamination for both groundwater and surface water runoff. An understanding of the processes controlling future mass loading rates to the saturated zone from these source zones is imperative to design efficient remediation measures. In the present study, hydrochemical data from a site where PFAS transport was observed as a result of the decades-long application of AFFF were used to develop and evaluate conceptual and numerical models that determine PFAS mobility across the vadose zone under realistic field-scale conditions. The simulation results demonstrate that the climate-driven physical flow processes within the vadose zone exert a dominating control on the retention of PFAS. Prolonged periods of evapotranspiration exceeding rainfall under the semi-arid conditions trigger periods of upward flux and evapoconcentration, leading to the observed persistence of PFAS compounds in the upper ca. 2 metres of the vadose zone, despite cessation of AFFF application to soils since more than a decade. Physico-chemical retention mechanisms, namely sorption to the air-water interface (AWI) and sediment surfaces, contribute further to PFAS retention. The simulations demonstrate how PFAS downward transport is effectively confined to short periods following discrete rain events when soils display a high degree of saturation. During these periods, AWI sorption is at a minimum. In addition, high PFAS concentrations measured and simulated below the source zone reduce the effect of the AWI further due to a decrease in surface tension associated with elevated PFAS concentrations. Consequently, time-integrated PFAS migration and retardation illuminates that the field-relevant PFAS transport rates are predominantly controlled by the physical flow processes with a lower relative importance of AWI and sediment sorption adding to PFAS retention.

Correction: Method for extraction and analysis of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in contaminated asphalt.

Correction for 'Method for extraction and analysis of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in contaminated asphalt' by Prashant Srivastava et al., Anal. Methods, 2022, 14, 1678-1689, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2AY00221C.

Sorption, degradation and microbial toxicity of chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing fluid and produced water in soils.

Spills of hydraulic fracturing (HF) fluids and of produced water during unconventional gas extraction operations may cause soil contamination. We studied the degradation and microbial toxicity of selected HF chemical components including two biocides (methylisothiozolinone- MIT, chloromethylisothiozolinone- CMIT), a gel-breaker aid (triethanolamine -TEA), and three geogenic chemicals (phenol, m-cresol and p-cresol) in ultrapure water, HF fluid and produced water in five different soil types (surface and subsurface soils). The degradation of the two biocides (in soils treated with HF fluid or ultrapure water) and of the three geogenic chemicals (in soils treated with produced water) was rapid (in all cases DT50 values < 2 days in surface soils). In contrast, the loss of TEA was much slower in soils, especially in those treated with HF fluid (DT50 > 30 days). Sorption coefficients (Koc in L/Kg) in these soils ranged from 71 to 733 for TEA, 64-408 for MIT and 11-72 for CMIT. In terms of soil microbial toxicity, exposure to HF fluid and produced water reduced microbial respiration, albeit temporarily. The overall microbial activities in surface soils contaminated with produced water had fully recovered in most soils. In contrast, the HF fluid addition to soils completely inhibited the nitrification in all soils, with little recovery over the 60 day experimental period. In the case of produced water exposure, three out of five surface soils showed complete recovery in nitrification during the study period. The functional genes for nitrogen fixation (nifH) and carbon cycling (GA1) and microbial community composition (16 S rRNA) were significantly affected by HF fluid in some soils. Overall, the study shows that the HF fluid can have significant detrimental impact on soil microbial functions, especially on nitrogen cycling. More work is needed to identify the exact cause of microbial toxicity in soils contaminated with HF fluid.

Assessment of Mobilization Potential of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances for Soil Remediation.

This study investigated the mobilization of a wide range of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) present in aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) in water-saturated soils through one-dimensional (1-D) column experiments with a view to assessing the feasibility of their remediation by soil desorption and washing. Results indicated that sorption/desorption of most of the shorter-carbon-chain PFASs (C ≤ 6) in soil reached greater than 99% rapidly─after approximately two pore volumes (PVs) and were well predicted by an equilibrium transport model, indicating that they will be readily removed by soil washing technologies. In contrast, the equilibrium model failed to predict the mobilization of longer-chain PFASs (C ≥ 7), indicating the presence of nonequilibrium sorption/desorption (confirmed by a flow interruption experiment). The actual time taken to attain 99% sorption/desorption was up to 5 times longer than predicted by the equilibrium model (e.g., ∼62 PVs versus ∼12 PVs predicted for perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in loamy sand). The increasing contribution of hydrophobic interactions over the electrostatic interactions is suggested as the main driving factor of the nonequilibrium processes. The inverse linear relationship (R2 = 0.6, p < 0.0001) between the nonequilibrium mass transfer rate coefficient and the Freundlich sorption coefficient could potentially be a useful means for preliminary evaluation of potential nonequilibrium sorption/desorption of PFASs in soils.

Laboratory batch representation of PFAS leaching from aged field soils: Intercomparison across new and standard approaches.

Relating laboratory leaching methods to partitioning and transport of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in field soils is challenging, making estimation of fluxes to groundwater and surface water uncertain. Existing laboratory leaching methods have limitations when assessing field leaching. For 37 aged field soils from five sites historically contaminated with PFAS over decades, we assess PFAS leaching using new and existing laboratory leaching methods to provide alternative methods better reflecting PFAS risks posed by its leaching and movement. Dominant PFAS in the soils were perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid, and perfluorohexanoic acid and to a lesser extent perfluorooctanoic acid. Leaching from intact soil cores (Exp 1) was taken to reflect field conditions. These were compared to two new laboratory batch tests, saturate-spin (Exp 2) and saturate-tumble-spin (Exp 3), and two standard approaches; Australian Standard Leaching Procedure (ASLP, Exp 4) and the Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF, Exp 5). The tests varied in terms of liquid:soil ratio, tumbling time and pH of the starting solution, with LEAF-1313 conducted across seven pHs (2-12). Correlations between leachate and soil concentrations were highest for Exp 4 and Exp 5 (R2 = 0.72-0.98) and lowest for Exp 3 (R2 = 0.53). The PFAS mass leached as a fraction of the total increased such that: soil core leaching (27 %) < saturate-spin (30 %) < saturate-tumble-spin (65 %) ≤ LEAF-1313 (65 to 88 % at pH 5-9) < ASLP (90 %). As a fraction of individual PFAS compounds in leachate compared with soil, the shorter chain PFAS (e.g., perfluorobutanoic acid) were higher in the leachate in all tests. Across all tests, the saturate-spin batch test most closely represented intact soil core leaching and therefore potentially provides a measure more analogous of in situ soil leaching at field sites. Other methods would apply to broader applications such as landfill disposal.

Method for extraction and analysis of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in contaminated asphalt.

The legacy use of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) has led to the generation of large volumes of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-contaminated asphalt materials, especially at airports and fire training areas. The management of such PFAS-contaminated asphalt materials requires an understanding of PFAS concentrations in these materials. This study, therefore, aimed to develop a suitable extraction methodology for the analysis of 22 target PFAS (i.e., carboxylic acids, sulfonic acids and fluorotelomers) in asphalt materials. A series of experiments was conducted to optimise extraction solvent composition, as well as to assess the performance of the chosen method under various conditions (i.e., sonication temperature, PFAS contamination level, asphalt core composition and timing of stable isotope addition used as internal standard). The methanol-based extractants performed best due to their accuracy and precision, which were within the acceptable range (extraction efficiency between 70 and 130% and RSD < 20%). The method which involved three successive extractions with methanol/1% NH3 by ultrasonication at 25 °C was selected due to its performance and ease of operation. The mean recovery of a vast majority of PFAS was found to be in the acceptable range. Tests on the timing of addition of stable isotope (SI)-labelled PFAS internal standards indicate that the recoveries obtained, regardless of when the stable isotopes were added, were within the acceptable range for PFAS. The accuracy and precision of PFAS recoveries were not affected by PFAS spike level (2 µg kg-1 and 200 µg kg-1), as well as sample composition (based on the location of asphalt material in the field). Low RSDs were achieved for asphalt cores collected from a contaminated site covering a wide range of concentrations (from LOQ to 2135 mg kg-1), demonstrating the suitability of the sample preparation method for real-world samples. The results from the interlaboratory testing were also in good agreement and validated the proposed PFAS extraction and analytical approach.

Increasing ionic strength and valency of cations enhance sorption through hydrophobic interactions of PFAS with soil surfaces.

The effect of soluble cations on sorption in soils of a range of anionic PFAS is not well studied. We investigated the role of three common cations (Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) at varying solution concentrations on the sorption coefficients (Kd) of 18 anionic PFAS in two contrasting soils. The effective charge of the soil suspension (Zeta potential) became less negative as the concentration of these cations increased in the soil solutions. Perfluorinated compounds showed greater sorption than polyfluorinated compounds, with sulfonates of comparable chain lengths showing higher sorption than the carboxylates. We observed that the Kd values of several PFAS in the two soils were positively correlated with the concentration of cations in solution, especially in the presence of polyvalent cations (Ca2+and Mg2+). The changes in sorption with cation concentration were more prominent for long-chain PFAS, with C > 10 PFAS being completely removed from solution at higher cation concentrations. The emerging PFAS (replacement compounds GenX and ADONA) showed negligible or little sorption (Kd < 0.6 L/kg). While several mechanisms contribute towards sorption of PFAS in the presence of cations, we conclude that the primary effect of cations is through screening of negative charges on head groups of PFAS and reorientation of molecules at the interface between organic matter surfaces and soil solution as well as charge neutralisation at soil solid surface. Screening of negative charges allows for greater hydrophobic interaction between hydrophobic tails of PFAS and soil surfaces resulting in greater sorption. Increasing cation concentrations in soil solutions could thus reduce mobility of PFAS through a soil profile.

Comparing the Leaching Behavior of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Contaminated Soils Using Static and Column Leaching Tests.

Soil contaminated with aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) at firefighting training sites has become a major concern worldwide. To date, most studies have focused on assessing soil-water partitioning behavior of PFASs and the key factors that can affect their sorption, whereas PFASs leaching from contaminated soils have not yet been widely investigated. This study evaluated the leaching and desorption of a wide range of PFASs from twelve contaminated soils using the Australian Standard Leaching Procedure (ASLP), the U.S. EPA Multiple Extraction Procedure (MEP), and Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF). All three leaching tests provided a similar assessment of PFAS leaching behavior. Leaching of PFASs from soils was related to C-chain lengths and their functional head groups. While short-chain (CF2 ≤ 6) PFASs were easily desorbed and leached, long-chain PFASs were more difficult to desorb. PFASs with a carboxylate head group were leached more readily and to a greater extent than those with a sulfonate or sulfonamide head group. Leaching of long-chain PFASs was pH-dependent where leaching increased at high pH, while leaching of short-chain PFASs was less sensitive to pH. Comparing different leaching tests showed that the results using the alkaline ASLP were similar to the cumulative MEP data and the former might be more practical for routine use than the MEP. No single soil property was adequately able to describe PFAS leaching from the soils. Overall, the PFAS chemical structure appeared to have a greater effect on PFAS leaching from soil than soil physicochemical properties.

Comprehensive framework for human health risk assessment of nanopesticides.

Nanopesticides are not only in an advanced state of research and development but have started to appear on the market. Industry and regulatory agencies need a consolidated and comprehensive framework and guidance for human health risk assessments. In this perspective we develop such a comprehensive framework by exploring two case studies from relevant product types: an active ingredient delivered with a nanocarrier system, and a nanoparticle as an active ingredient. For a nanocarrier system, three entities are tracked during the assessment: the nanocarrier-active ingredient complex, the empty nanocarrier remaining after the complete release of the active ingredient, and the released active ingredient. For the nanoparticle of pure active ingredient, only two entities are relevant: the nanoparticle and the released ions. We suggest important adaptations of the existing pesticide framework to determine the relevant nanopesticide entities and their concentrations for toxicity testing. Depending on the nature of the nanopesticides, additional data requirements, such as those pertaining to durability in biological media and potential for crossing biological barriers, have also been identified. Overall, our framework suggests a tiered approach for human health risk assessment, which is applicable for a range of nanopesticide products to support regulators and industry in making informed decisions on nanopesticide submissions. Brief summaries of suitable methods including references to existing standards (if available) have been included together with an analysis of current knowledge gaps. Our study is an important step towards a harmonized approach accepted by regulatory agencies for assessing nanopesticides.

An investigation into the long-term binding and uptake of PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS in soil - plant systems.

This study investigated the potential aging and plant bioaccumulation of three perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), perfluorosulphonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorohexanesulphonic acid (PFHxS) in 20 soils over a six-month period. Sorption coefficients (Log Kd) ranged from 0.13-1.28 for PFHxS, 0.17-1.06 for PFOA and 0.98-2.03 for PFOS, respectively, and bioaccumulation factors (Log BAFs) ranged from 0.29-1.24, 0.22-1.46 and 0.05-0.65 for PFHxS, PFOA and PFOS, respectively. Over the six-month period, Kd values significantly increased for PFHxS and PFOA but the magnitude of the increase was very small and did not translate into differences in plant PFAA-concentrations between aged and freshly spiked treatments. The Kd and BAF values were modelled by multiple linear regression (MLR) to soil physico-chemical properties and by partial least squares regression to soil spectra acquired by mid-infrared spectroscopy (DRIFT-PLSR). Modelling of each PFAA was influenced by different soil properties, including organic carbon, pH, CEC, exchangeable cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) and oxalate extractable Al. BAF values were not strongly correlated to any soil property but were inversely correlated to Kd values. Our results indicate that limited aging occurred in these soils over the six-month period.

Sequestration and potential release of PFAS from spent engineered sorbents.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have contaminated land and water at numerous sites worldwide that now require remediation. The most common approach for treating contaminated water currently relies on removal of PFAS by sorption. The spent sorbents loaded with PFAS can potentially be disposed of at landfills, provided the sorbed contaminants remain sequestered and certain risk criteria are met. Hence, it is essential that remediation sorbents (i) rapidly adsorb a large variety of PFAS under varying water chemistry conditions, and (ii) do not release the adsorbed PFAS in due course. This review aims at establishing the current state of knowledge about the potential release of PFAS that may occur during and after treatment. The scientific literature currently provides data for a very restricted range of long-chain PFAS. Our knowledge of the dynamics of PFAS adsorption processes on engineered sorbents is limited, and even less is known about their desorption processes. The sorption of PFAS can be strongly affected by changes in the solution pH, ionic strength and dissolved organic matter content, and the process is also subject to complex competition mechanisms in the presence of other PFAS as well as organic contaminants and inorganic salts. Several studies suggest that changes in one or several of these factors may trigger the release of PFAS from engineered sorbents. This phenomenon is more likely to occur for PFAS with shorter carbon chain lengths (

Influences of Chemical Properties, Soil Properties, and Solution pH on Soil-Water Partitioning Coefficients of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs).

The aim of this study was to assess the soil-water partitioning behavior of a wider range of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) onto soils covering diverse soil properties. The PFASs studied include perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs), perfluoroalkane sulfonates (PFSAs), fluorotelomer sulfonates (FTSs), nonionic perfluoroalkane sulfonamides (FASAs), cyclic PFAS (PFEtCHxS), per- and polyfluoroalkyl ether acids (GenX, ADONA, 9Cl-PF3ONS), and three aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)-related zwitterionic PFASs (AmPr-FHxSA, TAmPr-FHxSA, 6:2 FTSA-PrB). Soil-water partitioning coefficients (log Kd values) of the PFASs ranged from less than zero to approximately three, were chain-length-dependent, and were significantly linearly related to molecular weight (MW) for PFASs with MW > 350 g/mol (R2 = 0.94, p < 0.0001). Across all soils, the Kd values of all short-chain PFASs (≤5 -CF2- moieties) were similar and varied less (<0.5 log units) compared to long-chain PFASs (>0.5 to 1.5  log units) and zwitterions AmPr- and TAmPr-FHxSA (∼1.5 to 2 log units). Multiple soil properties described sorption of PFASs better than any single property. The effects of soil properties on sorption were different for anionic, nonionic, and zwitterionic PFASs. Solution pH could change both PFAS speciation and soil chemistry affecting surface complexation and electrostatic processes. The Kd values of all PFASs increased when solution pH decreased from approximately eight to three. Short-chain PFASs were less sensitive to solution pH than long-chain PFASs. The results indicate the complex interactions of PFASs with soil surfaces and the need to consider both PFAS type and soil properties to describe mobility in the environment.

Urbanisation and emerging economies: Issues and potential solutions for water and food security.

Urbanisation will be one of the 21st century's most transformative trends. By 2050, it will increase from 55% to 68%, more than doubling the urban population in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Urbanisation has multifarious (positive as well as negative) impacts on the wellbeing of humans and the environment. The 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) form the blueprint to achieve a sustainable future for all. Clean Water and Sanitation is a specific goal (SDG 6) within the suite of 17 interconnected goals. Here we provide an overview of some of the challenges that urbanisation poses in relation to SDG 6, especially in developing economies. Worldwide, several cities are on the verge of water crisis. Water distribution to informal settlements or slums in megacities (e.g. >50% population in the megacities of India) is essentially non-existent and limits access to adequate safe water supply. Besides due to poor sewer connectivity in the emerging economies, there is a heavy reliance on septic tanks, and other on-site sanitation (OSS) system and by 2030, 4.9 billion people are expected to rely on OSS. About 62-93% of the urban population in Vietnam, Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Indonesia rely on septic tanks, where septage treatment is rare. Globally, over 80% of wastewater is released to the environment without adequate treatment. About 11% of all irrigated croplands is irrigated with such untreated or poorly treated wastewater. In addition to acute and chronic health effects, this also results in significant pollution of often-limited surface and groundwater resources in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Direct and indirect water reuse plays a key role in global water and food security. Here we offer several suggestions to mitigate water and food insecurity in emerging economies.