Variable patterns of retrotransposition in different HeLa strains provide mechanistic insights into SINE RNA mobilization processes.

Alu elements are non-autonomous Short INterspersed Elements (SINEs) derived from the 7SL RNA gene that are present at over one million copies in human genomic DNA. Alu mobilizes by a mechanism known as retrotransposition, which requires the Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1) ORF2-encoded protein (ORF2p). Here, we demonstrate that HeLa strains differ in their capacity to support Alu retrotransposition. Human Alu elements retrotranspose efficiently in HeLa-HA and HeLa-CCL2 (Alu-permissive) strains, but not in HeLa-JVM or HeLa-H1 (Alu-nonpermissive) strains. A similar pattern of retrotransposition was observed for other 7SL RNA-derived SINEs and tRNA-derived SINEs. In contrast, mammalian LINE-1s, a zebrafish LINE, a human SINE-VNTR-Alu (SVA) element, and an L1 ORF1-containing mRNA can retrotranspose in all four HeLa strains. Using an in vitro reverse transcriptase-based assay, we show that Alu RNAs associate with ORF2p and are converted into cDNAs in both Alu-permissive and Alu-nonpermissive HeLa strains, suggesting that 7SL- and tRNA-derived SINEs use strategies to 'hijack' L1 ORF2p that are distinct from those used by SVA elements and ORF1-containing mRNAs. These data further suggest ORF2p associates with the Alu RNA poly(A) tract in both Alu-permissive and Alu-nonpermissive HeLa strains, but that Alu retrotransposition is blocked after this critical step in Alu-nonpermissive HeLa strains.

Variable patterns of retrotransposition in different HeLa strains provide mechanistic insights into SINE RNA mobilization processes.

Alu elements are non-autonomous Short INterspersed Elements (SINEs) derived from the 7SL RNA gene that are present at over one million copies in human genomic DNA. Alu mobilizes by a mechanism known as retrotransposition, which requires the Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) ORF2 -encoded protein (ORF2p). Here, we demonstrate that HeLa strains differ in their capacity to support Alu retrotransposition. Human Alu elements retrotranspose efficiently in HeLa-HA and HeLa-CCL2 ( Alu -permissive) strains, but not in HeLa-JVM or HeLa-H1 ( Alu -nonpermissive) strains. A similar pattern of retrotransposition was observed for other 7SL RNA -derived SINEs and tRNA -derived SINEs. In contrast, mammalian LINE-1s, a zebrafish LINE, a human SINE-VNTR - Alu ( SVA ) element, and an L1 ORF1 -containing messenger RNA can retrotranspose in all four HeLa strains. Using an in vitro reverse transcriptase-based assay, we show that Alu RNAs associate with ORF2p and are converted into cDNAs in both Alu -permissive and Alu -nonpermissive HeLa strains, suggesting that 7SL - and tRNA -derived SINE RNAs use strategies to 'hijack' L1 ORF2p that are distinct from those used by SVA elements and ORF1 -containing mRNAs. These data further suggest ORF2p associates with the Alu RNA poly(A) tract in both Alu -permissive and Alu -nonpermissive HeLa strains, but that Alu retrotransposition is blocked after this critical step in Alu -nonpermissive HeLa strains.

A neurodegeneration gene, WDR45, links impaired ferritinophagy to iron accumulation.

Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the abnormal accumulation of brain iron and the progressive degeneration of the nervous system. One of the recently identified subtypes of NBIA is ß-propeller protein-associated neurodegeneration (BPAN). BPAN is caused by de novo mutations in the WDR45/WIPI4 (WD repeat domain 45) gene. WDR45 is one of the four mammalian homologs of yeast Atg18, a regulator of autophagy. WDR45 deficiency in BPAN patients and animal models may result in defects in autophagic flux. However, how WDR45 deficiency leads to brain iron overload remains unclear. To elucidate the role of WDR45, we generated a WDR45-knockout (KO) SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line using CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing. Using these cells, we demonstrated that the non-TF (transferrin)-bound iron pathway dominantly mediated the accumulation of iron. Moreover, the loss of WDR45 led to defects in ferritinophagy, a form of autophagy that degrades the iron storage protein ferritin. We showed that impaired ferritinophagy contributes to iron accumulation in WDR45-KO cells. Iron accumulation was also detected in the mitochondria, which was accompanied by impaired mitochondrial respiration, elevated reactive oxygen species, and increased cell death. Thus, our study links WDR45 to specific iron acquisition pathways and ferritinophagy. Cover Image for this issue: https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15388.

Principles of Genetic Engineering.

Genetic engineering is the use of molecular biology technology to modify DNA sequence(s) in genomes, using a variety of approaches. For example, homologous recombination can be used to target specific sequences in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell genomes or other cultured cells, but it is cumbersome, poorly efficient, and relies on drug positive/negative selection in cell culture for success. Other routinely applied methods include random integration of DNA after direct transfection (microinjection), transposon-mediated DNA insertion, or DNA insertion mediated by viral vectors for the production of transgenic mice and rats. Random integration of DNA occurs more frequently than homologous recombination, but has numerous drawbacks, despite its efficiency. The most elegant and effective method is technology based on guided endonucleases, because these can target specific DNA sequences. Since the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats or CRISPR/Cas9 technology, endonuclease-mediated gene targeting has become the most widely applied method to engineer genomes, supplanting the use of zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases, and meganucleases. Future improvements in CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing may be achieved by increasing the efficiency of homology-directed repair. Here, we describe principles of genetic engineering and detail: (1) how common elements of current technologies include the need for a chromosome break to occur, (2) the use of specific and sensitive genotyping assays to detect altered genomes, and (3) delivery modalities that impact characterization of gene modifications. In summary, while some principles of genetic engineering remain steadfast, others change as technologies are ever-evolving and continue to revolutionize research in many fields.

Development and validation of a reporter cell line for rapid AAV quality control assessment.

Adenovirus-associated virus is a powerful vector system for transducing cells in vivo. It is widely used in animal systems due to high transduction efficiency of non-dividing cells with more than a dozen serotypes that have preferential tissue tropism. The viral genome remains episomal in the nucleus but maintains sustained expression in terminally differentiated cells for several weeks to months. Despite the popularity of recombinant AAV (rAAV) vectors, quality control testing of the virus after production is largely limited to physical characteristics such as viral genomes/ml determinations and silver staining acrylamide gels to determine purity. Functional testing, in vivo, is not practical due to high cost and restricted access of animal care and long duration of the assay (2-3 weeks). Some functional testing can be accomplished in cultured cells such as HEK293 cells, but HEK293 cells limit the types of rAAV constructs that can be tested. Many rAAV constructs are designed to study neurons in the brain with neural-specific promoters and many are floxed with loxp sites to be "activated" only in Cre-expressing neurons in transgenic animals. To develop a reporter cell line for rapid rAAV quality control assessment of these neural-specific, floxed rAAV constructs, we used the lentiviral system to stably express Cre recombinase in the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line. •A simple and economic method to evaluate recombinant AAV in vitro.•Allows functional validation of rAAV across a wide range of serotypes and promoters.•Allows functional validation of Cre-dependent rAAV constructs.

LINE-1 Cultured Cell Retrotransposition Assay.

The Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) retrotransposition assay has facilitated the discovery and characterization of active (i.e., retrotransposition-competent) LINE-1 sequences from mammalian genomes. In this assay, an engineered LINE-1 containing a retrotransposition reporter cassette is transiently transfected into a cultured cell line. Expression of the reporter cassette, which occurs only after a successful round of retrotransposition, allows the detection and quantification of the LINE-1 retrotransposition efficiency. This assay has yielded insight into the mechanism of LINE-1 retrotransposition. It also has provided a greater understanding of how the cell regulates LINE-1 retrotransposition and how LINE-1 retrotransposition impacts the structure of mammalian genomes. Below, we provide a brief introduction to LINE-1 biology and then detail how the LINE-1 retrotransposition assay is performed in cultured mammalian cells.

LEAP: L1 Element Amplification Protocol.

Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) retrotransposons encode two proteins (ORF1p and ORF2p) that are required for retrotransposition. The L1 element amplification protocol (LEAP) assays the ability of L1 ORF2p to reverse transcribe L1 RNA in vitro. Ultracentrifugation or immunoprecipitation is used to isolate L1 ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP) complexes from cultured human cells transfected with an engineered L1 expression construct. The isolated RNPs are incubated with an oligonucleotide that contains a unique sequence at its 5' end and a thymidine-rich sequence at its 3' end. The addition of dNTPs to the reaction allows L1 ORF2p bound to L1 RNA to generate L1 cDNA. The resultant L1 cDNAs then are amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the products are visualized by gel electrophoresis. Sequencing the resultant PCR products then allows product verification. The LEAP assay has been instrumental in determining how mutations in L1 ORF1p and ORF2p affect L1 reverse transcriptase (RT) activity. Furthermore, the LEAP assay has revealed that the L1 ORF2p RT can extend a DNA primer with mismatched 3' terminal bases when it is annealed to an L1 RNA template. As the LINE-1 biology field gravitates toward studying cellular proteins that regulate LINE-1, molecular genetic and biochemical approaches such as LEAP, in conjunction with the LINE-1-cultured cell retrotransposition assay, are essential to dissect the molecular mechanism of L1 retrotransposition.

The Influence of LINE-1 and SINE Retrotransposons on Mammalian Genomes.

Transposable elements have had a profound impact on the structure and function of mammalian genomes. The retrotransposon Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1), by virtue of its replicative mobilization mechanism, comprises ∼17% of the human genome. Although the vast majority of human LINE-1 sequences are inactive molecular fossils, an estimated 80-100 copies per individual retain the ability to mobilize by a process termed retrotransposition. Indeed, LINE-1 is the only active, autonomous retrotransposon in humans and its retrotransposition continues to generate both intra-individual and inter-individual genetic diversity. Here, we briefly review the types of transposable elements that reside in mammalian genomes. We will focus our discussion on LINE-1 retrotransposons and the non-autonomous Short INterspersed Elements (SINEs) that rely on the proteins encoded by LINE-1 for their mobilization. We review cases where LINE-1-mediated retrotransposition events have resulted in genetic disease and discuss how the characterization of these mutagenic insertions led to the identification of retrotransposition-competent LINE-1s in the human and mouse genomes. We then discuss how the integration of molecular genetic, biochemical, and modern genomic technologies have yielded insight into the mechanism of LINE-1 retrotransposition, the impact of LINE-1-mediated retrotransposition events on mammalian genomes, and the host cellular mechanisms that protect the genome from unabated LINE-1-mediated retrotransposition events. Throughout this review, we highlight unanswered questions in LINE-1 biology that provide exciting opportunities for future research. Clearly, much has been learned about LINE-1 and SINE biology since the publication of Mobile DNA II thirteen years ago. Future studies should continue to yield exciting discoveries about how these retrotransposons contribute to genetic diversity in mammalian genomes.

Similarities between long interspersed element-1 (LINE-1) reverse transcriptase and telomerase.

Long interspersed element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) retrotransposons encode two proteins (ORF1p and ORF2p) that contain activities required for conventional retrotransposition by a mechanism termed target-site primed reverse transcription. Previous experiments in XRCC4 or DNA protein kinase catalytic subunit-deficient CHO cell lines, which are defective for the nonhomologous end-joining DNA repair pathway, revealed an alternative endonuclease-independent (ENi) pathway for L1 retrotransposition. Interestingly, some ENi retrotransposition events in DNA protein kinase catalytic subunit-deficient cells are targeted to dysfunctional telomeres. Here we used an in vitro assay to detect L1 reverse transcriptase activity to demonstrate that wild-type or endonuclease-defective L1 ribonucleoprotein particles can use oligonucleotide adapters that mimic telomeric ends as primers to initiate the reverse transcription of L1 mRNA. Importantly, these ribonucleoprotein particles also contain a nuclease activity that can process the oligonucleotide adapters before the initiation of reverse transcription. Finally, we demonstrate that ORF1p is not strictly required for ENi retrotransposition at dysfunctional telomeres. Thus, these data further highlight similarities between the mechanism of ENi L1 retrotransposition and telomerase.

Characterization of LINE-1 ribonucleoprotein particles.

The average human genome contains a small cohort of active L1 retrotransposons that encode two proteins (ORF1p and ORF2p) required for their mobility (i.e., retrotransposition). Prior studies demonstrated that human ORF1p, L1 RNA, and an ORF2p-encoded reverse transcriptase activity are present in ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. However, the inability to physically detect ORF2p from engineered human L1 constructs has remained a technical challenge in the field. Here, we have employed an epitope/RNA tagging strategy with engineered human L1 retrotransposons to identify ORF1p, ORF2p, and L1 RNA in a RNP complex. We next used this system to assess how mutations in ORF1p and/or ORF2p impact RNP formation. Importantly, we demonstrate that mutations in the coiled-coil domain and RNA recognition motif of ORF1p, as well as the cysteine-rich domain of ORF2p, reduce the levels of ORF1p and/or ORF2p in L1 RNPs. Finally, we used this tagging strategy to localize the L1-encoded proteins and L1 RNA to cytoplasmic foci that often were associated with stress granules. Thus, we conclude that a precise interplay among ORF1p, ORF2p, and L1 RNA is critical for L1 RNP assembly, function, and L1 retrotransposition.

TSC1 stabilizes TSC2 by inhibiting the interaction between TSC2 and the HERC1 ubiquitin ligase.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disease characterized by hamartoma formation in various organs. Two genes responsible for the disease, TSC1 and TSC2, have been identified. The TSC1 and TSC2 proteins, also called hamartin and tuberin, respectively, have been shown to regulate cell growth through inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway. TSC1 is known to stabilize TSC2 by forming a complex with TSC2, which is a GTPase-activating protein for the Rheb small GTPase. We have identified HERC1 as a TSC2-interacting protein. HERC1 is a 532-kDa protein with an E3 ubiquitin ligase homology to E6AP carboxyl terminus (HECT) domain. We observed that the interaction of TSC1 with TSC2 appears to exclude TSC2 from interacting with HERC1. Disease mutations in TSC2, which result in its destabilization, allow binding to HERC1 in the presence of TSC1. Our study reveals a potential molecular mechanism of how TSC1 stabilizes TSC2 by excluding the HERC1 ubiquitin ligase from the TSC2 complex. Furthermore, these data reveal a possible biochemical basis of how certain disease mutations inactivate TSC2.