Fresh water leaching of alkaline bauxite residue after sea water neutralization.

Processing of bauxite to extract alumina produces a strongly alkaline waste, bauxite refining residue, which is commonly stored in engineered structures. Once full, these waste dumps must be revegetated. In many alumina refineries, the waste is separated into fine-textured red mud and coarse-textured residue sand (RS). The sand component has physical characteristics that make it a suitable plant growth medium, provided the adverse chemical characteristics can be addressed. Neutralization of the highly saline-sodic RS with sea water lowers pH, reduces Na saturation, and adds plant nutrients. However, sea water-neutralized RS remains saline sodic and needs fresh water leaching before use as a plant growth medium. Columns containing sea water-neutralized RS were leached with 30 m depth-equivalent of fresh water to evaluate the effects of rainfall on the RS and its leachate. Entrained cations were rapidly displaced by the fresh water, lowering salinity to non-plant-limiting levels (< or =0.3 dS m(-1)). The percentage of the effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) saturated by Na decreased from 71 to 62% due to a reduction in soil solution ionic strength (causing a decrease in the ECEC) and the preferential displacement of Na(+) (and K(+)) from the exchange. Fresh water leaching increased pH (leachate pH increased from 8.0 to 10.1). This pH increase is attributed to the slow dissolution of the Na-containing mineral sodalite. Under the current experimental conditions, the application of 30 m depth-equivalent of leaching reduced the total RS sodalite content by <10%.

Factors affecting localized abundance and distribution of lesser mealworm in earth-floor broiler houses in subtropical Australia.

Factors that influence the localized abundance and distribution of lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), in litter of two compacted earth-floor broiler houses in subtropical Australia were studied using various experimental manipulations. Numbers of lesser mealworms substantially increased inside caged areas and under uncaged empty feed pans placed in open areas of the houses. These populations were found to be localized and independent of chicken-feed, manure, and high beetle populations that normally occur under existing feed pans. Substantial horizontal movement of larvae to under feed pans was recorded. Placing metal barriers around these pans significantly restricted this movement. In almost all treatments, lesser mealworms typically peaked in numbers during the middle of the flock time. This temporal pattern of abundance also was observed under pans within barriers, where relatively low insect numbers occurred, but it was not observed in uncaged open areas (where chickens had complete access). It is likely that larvae do not establish in open areas, but fluctuate in numbers as they either move to refuges away from chickens or suffer high rates of mortality. In these refuges, larvae peak in numbers and then leave the litter environment to pupate in the earth floor before the end of the flock time. This behavior might be exploited for management of lesser mealworm by targeting applications of control agents.

Distributions of lesser mealworm (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in litter of a compacted earth floor broiler house in subtropical Queensland, Australia.

Distributions of lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in litter of a compacted earth floor broiler house in southeastern Queensland, Australia, were studied over two flocks. Larvae were the predominant stage recorded. Significantly low densities occurred in open locations and under drinker cups where chickens had complete access, whereas high densities were found under feed pans and along house edges where chicken access was restricted. For each flock, lesser mealworm numbers increased at all locations over the first 14 d, especially under feed pans and along house edges, peaking at approximately 26 d and then declining over the final 28 d. A life stage profile per flock was devised that consisted of the following: beetles emerge from the earth floor at the beginning of each flock, and females lay eggs, producing larvae that peak in numbers at approximately 3 wk; after a further 3 to 4 wk, larvae leave litter to pupate in the earth floor, and beetles then emerge by the end of the flock time. Removing old litter from the brooder section at the end of a flock did not greatly reduce mealworm numbers over the subsequent flock, but it seemed to prevent numbers increasing, while an increase in numbers in the grow-out section was recorded after reusing litter. Areas under feed pans and along house edges accounted for 5% of the total house area, but approximately half the estimated total number of lesser mealworms in the broiler house occurred in these locations. The results of this study will be used to determine optimal deployment of site-specific treatments for lesser mealworm control.

Impact of mirid (Creontiades spp.) (Hemiptera: Miridae) pest management on Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) outbreaks: the case for conserving natural enemies.

Creontiades spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) are sucking pests that attack buds, flowers and young pods in mungbeans, Vigna radiata (L.), causing these structures subsequently to abort. If left uncontrolled, mirids can cause 25-50% yield loss. Traditional industry practice has involved prophylactic applications of dimethoate to control mirids at budding and again a week later. The present trial was initiated to highlight the dangers of such a practice, in particular the risk of a subsequent Helicoverpa spp. lepidopteran pest outbreak. A single application of dimethoate halved the population of important natural enemies of Helicoverpa spp., and caused an above-threshold outbreak of Helicoverpa spp. within 11 days. This shows that even a moderate (e.g. 50%) reduction in natural enemies may be sufficient to increase Helicoverpa spp. populations in mungbeans. As a result, prophylactic sprays should not be used for the control of mirids in mungbeans, and dimethoate should be applied only when mirids are above the economic threshold. Indoxacarb was also tested to establish its effect on Helicoverpa spp., mirids and natural enemies. Indoxacarb showed potential for Helicoverpa spp. control and suppression of mirids and had little impact on natural enemies.

Toxic effects of Pb2+ on growth of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata).

A concentration as low as 1 microM lead (Pb) is highly toxic to plants, but previous studies have typically related plant growth to the total amount of Pb added to a solution. In the present experiment, the relative fresh mass of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) was reduced by 10% at a Pb2+ activity of 0.2 microM for the shoots and at a Pb2+ activity of 0.06 microM for the roots. The primary site of Pb2+ toxicity was the root, causing severe reductions in root growth, loss of apical dominance (shown by an increase in branching per unit root length), the formation of localized swellings behind the root tips (due to the initiation of lateral roots), and the bending of some root tips. In the root, Pb was found to accumulate primarily within the cell walls and intercellular spaces.

Predicting mortality of phosphine-resistant adults of Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in relation to changing phosphine concentration.

Adults of a phosphine-resistant strain of Sitophilus oryzae (L) were exposed to constant phosphine concentrations of 0.0035-0.9mg litre(-1) for periods of between 20 and 168h at 25 degrees C, and the effects of time and concentration on mortality were quantified. Adults were also exposed to a series of treatments lasting 48, 72 or 168 h at 25 degrees C, during which the concentration of phosphine was varied. The aim of this study was to determine whether equations from experiments using constant concentrations could be used to predict the efficacy of changing phosphine concentrations against adults of S oryzae. A probit plane without interaction, in which the logarithms of time (t) and concentration (C) were variables, described the effects of concentration and time on mortality in experiments with constant concentrations. A derived equation of the form C(n)t = k gave excellent predictions of toxicity when applied to data from changing concentration experiments. The results suggest that for resistant S oryzae adults there is nothing inherently different between constant and changing concentration regimes, and that data collected from fixed concentrations can be used to develop equations for predicting mortality in fumigations in which phosphine concentration changes. This approach could simplify the prediction of efficacy of typical fumigations in which concentrations tend to rise and then fall over a period of days.

Copper Tolerance in Australian Populations of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria Contributes to Poor Field Control of Bacterial Spot of Pepper.

Many Australian pepper producers have reported poor control of bacterial spot of pepper (caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria) despite using copper bactericides at recommended rates. This prompted us to investigate whether copper-tolerant strains of the pathogen are present in Australia and whether they are a contributing factor to poor control. We screened strains of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria in the laboratory, in broths containing different concentrations of CuSO4, and established the maximum copper concentration at which each strain could grow. About one in four strains (75 total) collected between 1999 and 2000 tolerated ≥1.0 mM CuSO4 and could be considered copper tolerant. Only one strain (of 12) collected before 1987 could tolerate 1.0 mM, and comparison of the two populations by fitting regression models revealed that the mortality of strains in the two populations differed significantly across all concentrations of copper. It was necessary to apply higher rates of copper to strains collected between 1999 and 2000 to achieve mortality levels equivalent to those in the older population. This is strong evidence that the prevalence of copper-tolerant strains has increased in Australian populations. We also assessed whether copper-tolerant strains may increase substantially in a field population of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria when copper is repeatedly sprayed. In the field, the proportion of copper-tolerant strains increased after 12 weekly sprays of copper, and they were very prevalent in the population after 21 sprays. This is the first report of copper tolerance in Australian populations of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria.

Inhibition of egg development by phosphine in the cosmopolitan pest of stored products Liposcelis bostrychophila (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae).

Phosphine-induced delay in development of eggs was investigated as a mechanism of resistance to this fumigant in Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel. One-day-old eggs of a susceptible and a strongly resistant strain of L bostrychophila were exposed to a range of phosphine concentrations for 6days at 30 (+/- 1) degrees C and 70 (+/- 2)% RH. Delay in mean hatching period occurred in both susceptible and resistant eggs, although it was more pronounced in the latter. A maximum delay of 2.65 days was recorded for eggs of the susceptible strain at 0.01 mg litre(-1) (the highest concentration at which eggs survived) and 13.39 days for the resistant strain at 1 mg litre(-1) (the highest concentration tested). Delay in egg development time was positively correlated with increasing phosphine concentration. Our results reveal that the most successful strategy to control resistant L bostrychophila is to apply relatively low concentrations of phosphine for extended exposure times (eg 0.05 mg litre(-1) for 16 days) that allow all eggs to hatch to the much less tolerant nymph stage.

Effects of time and concentration on mortality of phosphine-resistant Sitophilus oryzae (L) fumigated with phosphine.

The effects of exposure period and phosphine concentration on mortality of susceptible and resistant Sitophilus oryzae (L) were investigated. Although S oryzae is one of the world's most serious pests of stored grain there are few data on the practical significance of phosphine resistance in this species. The strains investigated were an Australian susceptible strain, a homozygous resistant strain exhibiting a level of resistance common in Australia and an unselected field strain from China with a much stronger resistance. Fumigations were carried out at 25 degrees C on adults and mixed-age cultures. For adults of all three strains and mixed-age cultures of the susceptible and resistant Australian strains, the relationship between concentration and time could be described by equations of the form Cnt = k. In all cases n < 1, indicating that time was a more important variable than concentration. In all fumigations of adults the resistant strains were harder to kill than the susceptible strain. However, in fumigations of mixed-age cultures, which contained the tolerant pupal stage, the difference between susceptible and resistant strains was more pronounced at lower concentrations than higher concentrations. For example, at 0.02 mg litre-1 the estimated LT99.9 for mixed-age cultures of the Australian resistant strain (27 days) is 3.4 times that of the susceptible strain (8 days), but at 1 mg litre-1 there is no difference between the two strains (4 days). Limited data on the Chinese resistant strain supported this finding. Twenty-three days exposure at 0.02 mg litre-1 had no effect on mixed-age cultures of this strain, but there were no survivors after 5 days exposure to 1 mg litre-1.