Zygomycosis due to Mucor racemosus Associated with a Circovirus Infection in a Blue Tit (Cyanistes caeruleus).

In spring 2014, several wild passeriform garden birds were found severely ill or dead, all with severe periocular swellings. A blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) showing severe depression was humanely destroyed and sent for necropsy examination. In this bird, the lower eyelids were sagging, red and oedematous. Microscopical examination revealed marked infiltration of the eyelid tissue with fungal hyphae (stained by periodic acid-Schiff) without any inflammatory reaction. Polymerase chain reaction followed by sequencing identified Mucor racemosus and a so far unknown circovirus. The circovirus infection in this bird might have induced immunosuppression and thus facilitated the fungal infection. To our knowledge this is the first report of ocular M. racemosus infection associated with circovirus infection in a bird.

High prevalence of Mycobacterium genavense within flocks of pet birds.

Mycobacterium genavense is regarded as the primary cause of mycobacteriosis in psittaciform and passeriform birds, which are commonly kept as pets. In humans, Mycobacterium genavense is especially pathogenic for young, old, pregnant and immunocompromised people (YOPIs). In birds, only few studies, mainly case reports, exist and there is still little e information about occurrence and relevance of this zoonotic pathogen. In this first pilot study concerning the prevalence of Mycobacterium genavense within flocks of naturally infected pet birds, real-time PCR examinations of 170 individual passeriform and psittaciform birds, including commonly kept budgerigars, lovebirds and zebra finches as well as gold finches and weaver finches, were conducted to determine the infection rate in six different aviaries. Antemortem examinations of faeces and cloacal swabs were compared with postmortem examinations of tissue samples to evaluate the reliability of antemortem diagnostics. Additional ophthalmologic examinations were performed to evaluate their diagnostic potential. Molecular examinations for viral co-infections, including circovirus, polyomavirus and adenovirus, were conducted to identify potential risk factors. PCR results revealed a detection prevalence of Mycobacterium genavense in the flocks varying from 3% to 91% based on postmortem testing, while antemortem diagnostics of faecal samples and swabs showed 64% discrepant (false negative) results. Ophthalmologic examinations were not useful in identifying infected birds within the flocks. Viral co-infections, especially with polyomavirus, were common. It has to be assumed that Mycobacterium genavense infections are widespread and underdiagnosed in companion birds. Viral infections might be an important risk factor. There is urgent need to improve antemortem diagnostics.

[Considerations and recommondations for species-appropriate and welfare friendly keeping of ratitae in Germany]. / Betrachtungen und Empfehlungen zur artgemäßen und tierschutzgerechten Haltung von Straußenvögeln in Deutschland.

Ostrich farming and keeping in Germany is of increasing interest. Ostrich farming includes keeping the animals as agricultural livestock (production of meat, leather, eggs), for display, hobby farming and keeping in zoological collections. Based on scientific research there is a steady increase in knowledge of keeping ratites according to sophisticated standards in terms of animal welfare legislation. Legislation and recommondations for keeping of ratitae are described.

Observations on the right ovary of birds of prey: a histological and immunohistochemical study.

In most avian species, only the left ovary and oviduct are developed in the adult bird. Right ovaries and oviducts usually do not mature further after hatching and remain only rudimentary. However, occurrence of a functional right ovary is frequently found in several species of birds of prey. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of the right ovaries and their morphology in these bird species. Four examined wild bird species possessed a right ovary: long-eared owl, common buzzard, sparrow hawk and goshawk. We used histological and immunohistochemical techniques to evaluate structural differences of the gonads and tried to correlate the findings with folliculogenesis and endocrine functions. The right ovaries showed different sizes and shapes. Cytoskeletal elements (tubulin and vimentin) and α-smooth muscle actin have been detected in different structures of the right ovaries, but their staining intensity was weaker compared with the left ovary. This shows that also the right ovary is mechanically able to ovulate. We could also demonstrate the expression of oestrogen receptor α and progesterone receptor in the right ovaries, which indicates that also the right ovary can respond to steroid hormone stimuli. We assume that the expression of steroid hormone receptors in the presumptive gonad is still sufficient to mediate the development of a right ovary in the studied species. We conclude that the expression of steroid hormone receptors in the right ovary is involved in its post-natal development. The histological and immunohistochemical data also imply that in the right ovary, folliculogenesis and ovulation can occur.

[Recommendations for the veterinary care and assessment of bird of prey collections]. / Empfehlungen für die tierärztliche Bestandsbetreuung und die Beurteilung von Greifvogelhaltungen.

Legislation from a new regulation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act that became effective on March 1, 2010 requires a written program for veterinary prophylaxis, treatment and nutrition for zoo and animal collections. As a result of this act, veterinary care is now obligatory for all captive birds of prey kept within either private or commercial collections, independent on the number of birds involved. The legal requirements of the Act will shortly be introduced and recommendations for the veterinary care of bird of prey collections are provided. Firstly, risk assessment of different husbandry systems (falconry birds, show birds, breeding stock, rehabilitation) is performed and veterinary care programs are provided based upon these assessments. Additionally, instructions for anamnestic ascertainments, work flow, feeding, quarantine, cleaning and disinfection procedures as well as prophylactic measures such as vaccination are provided. As husbandry, in particular the size and equipment of cages is important for the health and welfare of the birds, species specific housing, care and protection measures are also discussed. Veterinarians will be able to refer to these guidelines and can use them in the future for collection management.

[The modified Schirmer tear test in birds--a method for checking lacrimal gland function]. / Der modifizierte Schirmer-Tränentest bei Vögeln--eine Methode zur Uberprüfung der Tränendrüsenfunktion.

The Schirmer tear test (STT) is an important component of the complete ophthalmic examination in mammals for evaluating lacrimal function. However, no STT reference values for birds have been published to date. 255 ophthalmologically healthy birds (42 different species form seven orders) were tested using a 1-minute STT I (without topical anaesthesia, reflex secretion), STT II (with topical anaesthesia, basal secretion) and as a modification STT III (measurement under isofluran/oxygen, inhalation anaesthesia, a precaution to minimize examination induced stress) using standardized 5-mm-STT strips as well as--under consideration of the size of the palpebral fissure--strips trimmed down to 2 and 4 mm. Mean values (+/- SD) for STT I and STT II were 3.2 +/- 2.7 to 7.5 +/- 2.6 mm/min and 1.7 +/- 1.4 to 4.5 +/- 2.8 mm/min respectively in Psittaciformes (using 4 mm strips), 4.1 +/- 2.7 to 14.4 +/- 7.2 mm/min and 2.0 +/- 1.7 to 4.2 +/- 3.1 mm/min in Falconiformes and 10.7 +/- 4.0 to 11.5 +/- 5.4 mm/min and 3.6 +/- 1.7 to 5.9 +/- 3.1 mm/min in Accipitriformes (using 5 mm strips). Due to the lack of a glandula lacrimalis Strigiformes showed STT levels below 3 mm/min. STT III values were between those of STT I and STT II in Falconiformes and Accipitriformes but not in Columbiformes. On the basis of these results the STT will become an important component of the bird specific ophthalmologic examination procedure allowing more sophisticated examination of lacrimal gland associated avian eye disorders.

[Comparative investigations on inhalation anesthesia with isoflurane (Forene) and sevoflurane (SEVOrane) in racing pigeons (Columba livia Gmel., 1789, var. domestica) and presentation of a reference anesthesia protocol for birds]. / Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Inhalationsanästhesie mit Isofluran (Forene) und Sevofluran (SEVOrane) bei Haustauben (Columba livia Gmel., 1789, var. domestica) und Vorstellung eines Referenz-Narkoseprotokolls für Vögel.

A conventional inhalation anaesthesia using an isoflurane and sevoflurane-oxygen-nitrous oxide-mixture was performed in each six domestic pigeons (Columbia livia Gmel., 1789, var. domestica). Over a period of 60 minutes routine anaesthetic monitoring including reflex score (12 reflexes, cloacal body temperature and pulse oximetry) was performed. For anaesthesia maintainance 4.0 +/- 0.3 Vol. % sevoflurane compared to 2.0 +/- 0.2 Vol. % isoflurane were used. The induction period using sevoflurane was shorter (95 +/- 9 sec) than by using isoflurane (154 +/- 12 sec). The recovery period was significantly shortened using sevoflurane (162 +/- 12 sec) compared to isoflurane with 186 +/- 12 sec. Results show, that the use of sevoflurane is indicated especially in patients bearing anaesthesia risks, but has a number of advantages, though anaesthetic potency is approximately 50% lower than in isoflurane, causing higher costs. Furthermore low toxicity of sevoflurane leads to a lower burden for the surgical staff through so-called "waste gases", which play an important role in avian anaesthesia using a head chamber for application. Beside a review on current techniques in avian anaesthesia this paper includes a standardised detailed anaesthesia protocol description of avian inhalation anaesthesia regarding the technical equipment as well as its practice, which allows an exact documentation of the anaesthetic, meeting legal requirements, too. The results show that inhalation anaesthesia with isoflurane or sevoflurane has to be preferred even in birds when compared to ketamine anaesthesia, the future use of which has to be restricted to sedation and immobilisation partly due to animal welfare grounds.

Viscoelastic properties of canine tracheal mucus: effects of structural inhomogeneities and storage.

Tracheal mucus is an inhomogeneous material and thus its viscoelastic properties may vary substantially within a mucus sample. In this study on canine tracheal mucus, we investigated this variation of mucus viscoelasticity and addressed the question whether or not the viscoelasticity is affected by storage of the mucus at low temperatures. Mucus samples were collected from 16 beagle dogs kept under clean air conditions. By means of magnetic rheometry, dynamic viscosity- and elasticity were determined either in the fresh state of these samples or after storage at -80 degrees C. Owing to inhomogeneities within the gel-structure of the mucus, local values of the viscoelastic parameters differed by more than an order of magnitude. Short storage periods (5 d) were found to decrease, long periods (100 d) to increase the viscosity as well as elasticity parameters of the mucus material. These results emphasize the fact that measured viscoelastic properties of mucus are average values depending on the measuring protocol. In addition, these values are modified by storage of the mucus at low temperatures.

[The problem of free living urban pigeons]. / Zur Problematik der freilebenden Stadttauben.

The biology and behaviour of urban pigeons is presented in this article. When changes in the population density of pigeons by capture, shooting, or intoxication are intended, the breeding behaviour has to be considered. A constant reduction of pigeons according to the law for the prevention of cruelty against animals can only be achieved by a restricted feeding if feeding at all.

[Ostrich farming from the perspective of veterinarians]. / Straussenhaltung aus der Sicht des Tierarztes.

The present paper is an attempt to relate the etiology of 54 cases with diseased/deceased ostriches to criterions of keeping, feeding, climate and infectious diseases. Despite the fact that some of the damages diagnosed seem to be avoidable the criterions of the law for the prevention of cruelty to animals are not to be fulfilled since the adverse climatic circumstances in Germany.

[Determination of the activity of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase--a method for the diagnosis of lead poisoning in birds]. / Die Aktivitätsbestimmung der Delta-Aminolävulinsäure-Dehydratase--ein Verfahren zur Diagnose von Bleiintoxikationen bei Vögeln.

In avian patients enteral, parenteral and aerogenous lead intoxications are frequently observed. Ingestion of non-metallic lead may not be diagnosed by radiography. Alternatively, estimation of the delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (delta-ALA Dehydratase) activity is a suitable diagnostic test for lead intoxications. The enzyme delta-ALA Dehydratase, which plays a central role in erythropoiesis, is inhibited by lead and is therefore a specific indicator for lead intoxications. The activity of delta-ALA Dehydratase is measured directly in the blood; not the amount of excreted delta-ALA in the urine as in mammals. Blood volumes of 0.45 ml are necessary and thus allow to perform the test in birds as small as 45 g body weight (e.g. Budgerigars). Possible ranges of application as well as a suitable therapy for lead intoxication in birds are presented.

[The occurrence of Chlamydia psittaci infections in raptors from wildlife preserves]. / Zum Vorkommen von Chlamydia-psittaci-Infektionen bei Greifvögeln aus freier Wildbahn.

152 free-living raptors found in the area around Munich, Germany, were investigated for possible Chlamydia psittaci infections. Chlamydia psittaci was detected in 13.2% of these birds of prey (Strigiformes, Falconiformes and Accipitriformes) by examination of cloacal swabs with an antigen ELISA (IDEIA Chlamydia test kit). Chlamydia psittaci antibodies could be demonstrated in 85.1% of 121 birds by a Chlamydia antibody ELISA (Chlamydia-psittaci-AK-EIA). 29.7% of the samples investigated were positive, 55.4% showed strong positive reactions. The birds showed neither clinical nor pathological signs of chlamydial infections. The specificity and sensitivity of the Chlamydia antibody ELISA, as determined using positive sera and epidemiological criteria are discussed. Antigen ELISA and the cell culture method showed a consistency of 94%. The results and their consequences for diagnostic procedures and state regulations are discussed.

[Pathologico-anatomic and mycotoxicologic studies of aspergillosis in birds]. / Pathologisch-anatomische und mykotoxikologische Untersuchungen zur Aspergillose bei Vögeln.

4.0% of all birds (n = 11249) examined post mortem at the Institute of Avian Diseases, Oberschleissheim, showed fungal infections of the respiratory tract. Clinical and histopathological findings to date have suggested toxin production in Aspergillus fumigatus infections. To obtain detailed information, preselected tissues from the lungs and air sacs (n = 17) were examined by culture and fluorescence microscopy. In 12 cases gliotoxin (0.1-0.45 mg/kg) was found in the A. fumigatus infected tissues. The importance of gliotoxin, which showed strong cytotoxic effects in cell cultures, is discussed.

[Diagnostic endoscopy and sexoscopy in birds]. / Diagnostische Endoskopie und Sexoskopie beim Vogelpatienten.

The main indication for clinical endoscopy in birds is--beside diagnostic reasons--sex determination in monomorphic avian species. Some typical findings, the technical procedure, important differences to endoscopy in mammals and possible complications are described.

[The problems of making birds unable to fly and questions of raising waterfowl in ponds from the viewpoint of animal welfare]. / Zur Problematik der Flugunfähigmachung von Geflügel und zu Fragen der Teichhaltung von Wassergeflügel aus der Sicht des Tierschutzrechts.

From the viewpoint of the current law on animal welfare, the methods of rendering birds flightless are described and evaluated. Besides the animal welfare, other law statutes are to be paid attention to obligatory when waterfowl is kept on ponds. The raising and fattening of ducks and geese without water to swim on, can also be advocated from the angle of animal welfare.

[Ocular manifestations of systemic diseases in birds. Part 2]. / Okulare Manifestationen systemischer Erkrankungen beim Vogelpatienten. Teil 2.

Among the representatives of the class aves, ocular lesions may be a particularly strong indicator of systemic disorders. A causative diagnosis of ocular lesions may be vital for the avian patient, not only as a basis for effective therapy of the primary disease, but also for saving the vision, as birds orientate themselves primarily by vision. The following paper presents a synopsis of important ocular disorders in avian patients that are either pathognomonic for certain disorders or, when considered in conjunction with other organic diseases, enable a specific diagnosis. Bacterial and parasitic infections were already described in part 1 of this paper. Part 2 gives outlines of possible viral etiologies and noninfectious diseases.

[Ocular manifestations of systemic diseases in birds. Part 1]. / Okulare Manifestationen systemischer Erkrankungen beim Vogelpatienten. Teil 1.

Among the representatives of the class Aves ocular lesions may be a particularly strong indication of systemic disorders. A causative diagnosis of ocular lesions may be vital for the avian patient, not only as a basis for effective therapy of the primary disease, but also for saving the vision, as birds orientate themselves primarily by vision. The following paper presents a synopsis of important ocular disorders in avian patients that are either pathognomonic for certain disorders or, when considered in conjunction with other organic diseases, enable a specific diagnosis to be arrived at. In part 1 bacterial and parasitic etiologies will be described. Part 2 deals with viral infections and noninfectious etiologies.

[Restraint methods in avian patients. Theoretical basis and practical execution. Part 2]. / Zwangsmassnahmen beim Vogelpatienten. Theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Durchführung. Teil 2.

In avian medicine a correct diagnostic and therapeutic procedure requires restraint. Incidents during restraint result most frequently from the ignorance of certain bird-specific physiological and anatomical characteristics. On the basis of theoretical fundamentals, outlined in part 1, the different restraint techniques are described and demonstrated in detail by figures.