The bone transcription factor Osterix controls extracellular matrix- and node of Ranvier-related gene expression in oligodendrocytes.

Oligodendrocytes are the primary producers of many extracellular matrix (ECM)-related proteins found in the CNS. Therefore, oligodendrocytes play a critical role in the determination of brain stiffness, node of Ranvier formation, perinodal ECM deposition, and perineuronal net formation, all of which depend on the ECM. Nevertheless, the transcription factors that control ECM-related gene expression in oligodendrocytes remain unknown. Here, we found that the transcription factor Osterix (also known as Sp7) binds in proximity to genes important for CNS ECM and node of Ranvier formation and mediates their expression. Oligodendrocyte-specific ablation of Sp7 changes ECM composition and brain stiffness and results in aberrant node of Ranvier formation. Sp7 is known to control osteoblast maturation and bone formation. Our comparative analyses suggest that Sp7 plays a conserved biological role in oligodendrocytes and in bone-forming cells, where it mediates brain and bone tissue stiffness by controlling expression of ECM components.

Astrocyte reactivity and inflammation-induced depression-like behaviors are regulated by Orai1 calcium channels.

Astrocytes contribute to brain inflammation in neurological disorders but the molecular mechanisms controlling astrocyte reactivity and their relationship to neuroinflammatory endpoints are complex and poorly understood. In this study, we assessed the role of the calcium channel, Orai1, for astrocyte reactivity and inflammation-evoked depression behaviors in mice. Transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis indicated that deletion of Orai1 in astrocytes downregulates genes in inflammation and immunity, metabolism, and cell cycle pathways, and reduces cellular metabolites and ATP production. Systemic inflammation by peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) increases hippocampal inflammatory markers in WT but not in astrocyte Orai1 knockout mice. Loss of Orai1 also blunts inflammation-induced astrocyte Ca2+ signaling and inhibitory neurotransmission in the hippocampus. In line with these cellular changes, Orai1 knockout mice showed amelioration of LPS-evoked depression-like behaviors including anhedonia and helplessness. These findings identify Orai1 as an important signaling hub controlling astrocyte reactivity and astrocyte-mediated brain inflammation that is commonly observed in many neurological disorders.

Fast-slow analysis as a technique for understanding the neuronal response to current ramps.

The standard protocol for studying the spiking properties of single neurons is the application of current steps while monitoring the voltage response. Although this is informative, the jump in applied current is artificial. A more physiological input is where the applied current is ramped up, reflecting chemosensory input. Unsurprisingly, neurons can respond differently to the two protocols, since ion channel activation and inactivation are affected differently. Understanding the effects of current ramps, and changes in their slopes, is facilitated by mathematical models. However, techniques for analyzing current ramps are under-developed. In this article, we demonstrate how current ramps can be analyzed in single neuron models. The primary issue is the presence of gating variables that activate on slow time scales and are therefore far from equilibrium throughout the ramp. The use of an appropriate fast-slow analysis technique allows one to fully understand the neural response to ramps of different slopes. This study is motivated by data from olfactory bulb dopamine neurons, where both fast ramp (tens of milliseconds) and slow ramp (tens of seconds) protocols are used to understand the spiking profiles of the cells. The slow ramps generate experimental bifurcation diagrams with the applied current as a bifurcation parameter, thereby establishing asymptotic spiking activity patterns. The faster ramps elicit purely transient behavior that is of relevance to most physiological inputs, which are short in duration. The two protocols together provide a broader understanding of the neuron's spiking profile and the role that slowly activating ion channels can play.

Illuminating and Sniffing Out the Neuromodulatory Roles of Dopamine in the Retina and Olfactory Bulb.

In the central nervous system, dopamine is well-known as the neuromodulator that is involved with regulating reward, addiction, motivation, and fine motor control. Yet, decades of findings are revealing another crucial function of dopamine: modulating sensory systems. Dopamine is endogenous to subsets of neurons in the retina and olfactory bulb (OB), where it sharpens sensory processing of visual and olfactory information. For example, dopamine modulation allows the neural circuity in the retina to transition from processing dim light to daylight and the neural circuity in the OB to regulate odor discrimination and detection. Dopamine accomplishes these tasks through numerous, complex mechanisms in both neural structures. In this review, we provide an overview of the established and emerging research on these mechanisms and describe similarities and differences in dopamine expression and modulation of synaptic transmission in the retinas and OBs of various vertebrate organisms. This includes discussion of dopamine neurons' morphologies, potential identities, and biophysical properties along with their contributions to circadian rhythms and stimulus-driven synthesis, activation, and release of dopamine. As dysregulation of some of these mechanisms may occur in patients with Parkinson's disease, these symptoms are also discussed. The exploration and comparison of these two separate dopamine populations shows just how remarkably similar the retina and OB are, even though they are functionally distinct. It also shows that the modulatory properties of dopamine neurons are just as important to vision and olfaction as they are to motor coordination and neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative conditions, thus, we hope this review encourages further research to elucidate these mechanisms.

Spiking and Membrane Properties of Rat Olfactory Bulb Dopamine Neurons.

The mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) has a vast population of dopamine (DA) neurons, whose function is to increase odor discrimination through mostly inhibitory synaptic mechanisms. However, it is not well understood whether there is more than one neuronal type of OB DA neuron, how these neurons respond to different stimuli, and the ionic mechanisms behind those responses. In this study, we used a transgenic rat line (hTH-GFP) to identify fluorescent OB DA neurons for recording via whole-cell electrophysiology. These neurons were grouped based on their localization in the glomerular layer ("Top" vs. "Bottom") with these largest and smallest neurons grouped by neuronal area ("Large" vs. "Small," in µm2). We found that some membrane properties could be distinguished based on a neuron's area, but not by its glomerular localization. All OB DA neurons produced a single action potential when receiving a sufficiently depolarizing stimulus, while some could also spike multiple times when receiving weaker stimuli, an activity that was more likely in Large than Small neurons. This single spiking activity is likely driven by the Na+ current, which showed a sensitivity to inactivation by depolarization and a relatively long time constant for the removal of inactivation. These recordings showed that Small neurons were more sensitive to inactivation of Na+ current at membrane potentials of -70 and -60 mV than Large neurons. The hyperpolarization-activated H-current (identified by voltage sags) was more pronounced in Small than Large DA neurons across hyperpolarized membrane potentials. Lastly, to mimic a more physiological stimulus, these neurons received ramp stimuli of various durations and current amplitudes. When stimulated with weaker/shallow ramps, the neurons needed less current to begin and end firing and they produced more action potentials at a slower frequency. These spiking properties were further analyzed between the four groups of neurons, and these analyses support the difference in spiking induced with current step stimuli. Thus, there may be more than one type of OB DA neuron, and these neurons' activities may support a possible role of being high-pass filters in the OB by allowing the transmission of stronger odor signals while inhibiting weaker ones.

Dopamine: A Modulator of Circadian Rhythms in the Central Nervous System.

Circadian rhythms are daily rhythms that regulate many biological processes - from gene transcription to behavior - and a disruption of these rhythms can lead to a myriad of health risks. Circadian rhythms are entrained by light, and their 24-h oscillation is maintained by a core molecular feedback loop composed of canonical circadian ("clock") genes and proteins. Different modulators help to maintain the proper rhythmicity of these genes and proteins, and one emerging modulator is dopamine. Dopamine has been shown to have circadian-like activities in the retina, olfactory bulb, striatum, midbrain, and hypothalamus, where it regulates, and is regulated by, clock genes in some of these areas. Thus, it is likely that dopamine is essential to mechanisms that maintain proper rhythmicity of these five brain areas. This review discusses studies that showcase different dopaminergic mechanisms that may be involved with the regulation of these brain areas' circadian rhythms. Mechanisms include how dopamine and dopamine receptor activity directly and indirectly influence clock genes and proteins, how dopamine's interactions with gap junctions influence daily neuronal excitability, and how dopamine's release and effects are gated by low- and high-pass filters. Because the dopamine neurons described in this review also release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA which influences clock protein expression in the retina, we discuss articles that explore how GABA may contribute to the actions of dopamine neurons on circadian rhythms. Finally, to understand how the loss of function of dopamine neurons could influence circadian rhythms, we review studies linking the neurodegenerative disease Parkinson's Disease to disruptions of circadian rhythms in these five brain areas. The purpose of this review is to summarize growing evidence that dopamine is involved in regulating circadian rhythms, either directly or indirectly, in the brain areas discussed here. An appreciation of the growing evidence of dopamine's influence on circadian rhythms may lead to new treatments including pharmacological agents directed at alleviating the various symptoms of circadian rhythm disruption.