Bacterial communities in commercial aircraft high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters assessed by PhyloChip analysis.

UNLABELLED: Air travel can rapidly transport infectious diseases globally. To facilitate the design of biosensors for infectious organisms in commercial aircraft, we characterized bacterial diversity in aircraft air. Samples from 61 aircraft high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters were analyzed with a custom microarray of 16S rRNA gene sequences (PhyloChip), representing bacterial lineages. A total of 606 subfamilies from 41 phyla were detected. The most abundant bacterial subfamilies included bacteria associated with humans, especially skin, gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and with water and soil habitats. Operational taxonomic units that contain important human pathogens as well as their close, more benign relatives were detected. When compared to 43 samples of urban outdoor air, aircraft samples differed in composition, with higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and Gammaproteobacteria lineages in aircraft samples, and higher relative abundance of Actinobacteria and Betaproteobacteria lineages in outdoor air samples. In addition, aircraft and outdoor air samples differed in the incidence of taxa containing human pathogens. Overall, these results demonstrate that HEPA filter samples can be used to deeply characterize bacterial diversity in aircraft air and suggest that the presence of close relatives of certain pathogens must be taken into account in probe design for aircraft biosensors. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: A biosensor that could be deployed in commercial aircraft would be required to function at an extremely low false alarm rate, making an understanding of microbial background important. This study reveals a diverse bacterial background present on aircraft, including bacteria closely related to pathogens of public health concern. Furthermore, this aircraft background is different from outdoor air, suggesting different probes may be needed to detect airborne contaminants to achieve minimal false alarm rates. This study also indicates that aircraft HEPA filters could be used with other molecular techniques to further characterize background bacteria and in investigations in the wake of a disease outbreak.

Detection of respiratory viruses on air filters from aircraft.

AIMS: To evaluate the feasibility of identifying viruses from aircraft cabin air, we evaluated whether respiratory viruses trapped by commercial aircraft air filters can be extracted and detected using a multiplex PCR, bead-based assay. METHODS AND RESULTS: The ResPlex II assay was first tested for its ability to detect inactivated viruses applied to new filter material; all 18 applications of virus at a high concentration were detected. The ResPlex II assay was then used to test for 18 respiratory viruses on 48 used air filter samples from commercial aircraft. Three samples tested positive for viruses, and three viruses were detected: rhinovirus, influenza A and influenza B. For 33 of 48 samples, internal PCR controls performed suboptimally, suggesting sample matrix effect. CONCLUSION: In some cases, influenza and rhinovirus RNA can be detected on aircraft air filters, even more than 10 days after the filters were removed from aircraft. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: With protocol modifications to overcome PCR inhibition, air filter sampling and the ResPlex II assay could be used to characterize viruses in aircraft cabin air. Information about viruses in aircraft could support public health measures to reduce disease transmission within aircraft and between cities.

Costs and benefits of cold tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana.

Cold tolerance in plants is an ecologically important trait that has been under intensive study for basic and applied reasons. Determining the fitness benefits and costs of cold tolerance has previously been difficult because cold tolerance is normally an induced trait that is not expressed in warm environments. The recent creation of transgenic plants constitutively expressing cold tolerance genes enables the investigation of the fitness consequences of cold tolerance in multiple temperature environments. We studied three genes from the CBF (C-repeat/dehydration responsive element binding factor) cold tolerance pathway, CBF1, 2 and 3, in Arabidopsis thaliana to test for benefits and costs of constitutive cold tolerance. We used multiple insertion lines for each transgene and grew the lines in cold and control conditions. Costs of cold tolerance, as determined by fruit number, varied by individual transgene. CBF2 and 3 overexpressers showed costs of cold tolerance, and no fitness benefits, in both environments. CBF1 overexpressing plants showed no fitness cost of cold tolerance in the control environment and showed a marginal fitness benefit in the cold environment. These results suggest that constitutive expression of traits that are normally induced in response to environmental stress will not always lead to costs in the absence of that stress, and that the ecological risks of CBF transgene escape should be assessed prior to their use in commercial agriculture.