ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to evaluate if an early exposure to human papillomavirus (HPV) during the prenatal period or infancy could result in HPV16-specific T helper (Th) responses resembling those of adults with HPV-induced lesions. We tested HPV16-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI) in children born with HPV-positive umbilical cord blood and/or placenta or having persistent oral HPV infection and in constantly oral HPV-negative controls. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 33 children from the Finnish HPV Family Study cohort (mean age 14.7 years) were stimulated with peptide pools covering the amino acid sequence of the HPV16 E2, E6, and E7 proteins. Lymphocyte proliferation, secretion of cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-17A), and the frequency of Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells were determined in relation to the HPV DNA status during a 14-year follow-up. 73.6% of cases and 85.7% of controls responded against HPV16 E2, while reactivity against E6 was found in 10.5 and 35.7%, respectively. The proliferative response against E6 and E7 was more frequent in controls than in cases (p = 0.047). No HPV16-specific CMI response or antibodies were detected in two children with persistent oral HPV16. The profiles of induced cytokines indicated higher levels of IL-5, IL-10, and IL-17A in children with HPV DNA in placenta and/or cord blood than in other children. HPV16-specific CMI is common in HPV DNA-negative children. The cytokine profile in children infected with HPV16 during early life suggests that the viral dose and/or specific environment created by the placenta may have significant impact on the type of HPV-specific immunity.
Subject(s)
Fetal Blood/virology , Human papillomavirus 16/immunology , Human papillomavirus 16/isolation & purification , Maternal-Fetal Exchange , Placenta/virology , Th2 Cells/immunology , Adolescent , Antigens, Viral/immunology , Cell Proliferation , Child , Child, Preschool , Cytokines/metabolism , Female , Finland , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Mouth/virology , PregnancyABSTRACT
The aim of the present study was to define the profile of a drunk driver and to determine risk factors for drunk driving by analyzing data on both sober and drunk drivers. Systematic roadside surveys have been carried out in Southern Finland for over 18 years, with 20,000-30,000 drivers breath tested annually. During the study period, 1241 drunk drivers were caught (legal blood alcohol limit 0.50). The comparison material consisted of 3407 sober drivers. The surveys were designed to further investigate demographic features and driving habits of drivers. The prevalence of drunk driving has been 0.2% over the time period, with only random variations. According to the data, a typical drunk driver is a man aged 40-49 who has a valid driving license and drives his own car, usually alone, with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 1.0. He has a job and is married or cohabiting. The profile remained consistent throughout the study period. The risk of drunk driving was found to be five times higher for men than for women. Divorcees and widow(er)s had a substantially higher risk factor for being caught drunk driving than married drivers. Drunk drivers are most likely to be caught by roadside testing on Saturday mornings. During the study period the blood alcohol limit for aggravated drunk driving was lowered in 1994 from 1.5 to 1.2. In 2004 the taxation of alcohol beverages was reduced by 30%. Neither of these measures affected the prevalence of drunk driving or the mean BAC of drunk drivers (p=0.63).
