End-to-end physics-informed deep neural network optimization of sub-Nyquist lenses.

In this paper, an approach for optimizing sub-Nyquist lenses using an end-to-end physics-informed deep neural network is presented. The simulation and optimization of these sub-Nyquist lenses is investigated for image quality, classification performance, or both. This approach integrates a diffractive optical model with a deep learning classifier, forming a unified optimization framework that facilitates simultaneous simulation and optimization. Lenses in this work span numerical apertures from approximately 0.1 to 1.0, and a total of 707 models are trained using the PyTorch-Lightning deep learning framework. Results demonstrate that the optimized lenses produce better image quality in terms of mean squared error (MSE) compared to analytical lenses by reducing the impact of diffraction order aliasing. When combined with the classifier, the optimized lenses show improved classification performance and reduced variability across the focal range. Additionally, the absence of correlation between the MSE measurement of image quality and classification performance suggests that images that appear good according to the MSE metric may not necessarily be beneficial for the classifier.

Investigating the Electromechanical Sensitivity of Carbon-Nanotube-Coated Microfibers.

The piezoresistance of carbon nanotube (CNT)-coated microfibers is examined using diametric compression. Diverse CNT forest morphologies were studied by changing the CNT length, diameter, and areal density via synthesis time and fiber surface treatment prior to CNT synthesis. Large-diameter (30-60 nm) and relatively low-density CNTs were synthesized on as-received glass fibers. Small-diameter (5-30 nm) and-high density CNTs were synthesized on glass fibers coated with 10 nm of alumina. The CNT length was controlled by adjusting synthesis time. Electromechanical compression was performed by measuring the electrical resistance in the axial direction during diametric compression. Gauge factors exceeding three were measured for small-diameter (<25 µm) coated fibers, corresponding to as much as 35% resistance change per micrometer of compression. The gauge factor for high-density, small-diameter CNT forests was generally greater than those for low-density, large-diameter forests. A finite element simulation shows that the piezoresistive response originates from both the contact resistance and intrinsic resistance of the forest itself. The change in contact and intrinsic resistance are balanced for relatively short CNT forests, while the response is dominated by CNT electrode contact resistance for taller CNT forests. These results are expected to guide the design of piezoresistive flow and tactile sensors.

Measurement of the internal stress and electric field in a resonating piezoelectric transformer for high-voltage applications using the electro-optic and photoelastic effects.

The high output voltages from piezoelectric transformers are currently being used to accelerate charged particle beams for x-ray and neutron production. Traditional methods of characterizing piezoelectric transformers (PTs) using electrical probes can decrease the voltage transformation ratio of the device due to the introduction of load impedances on the order of hundreds of kiloohms to hundreds of megaohms. Consequently, an optical diagnostic was developed that used the photoelastic and electro-optic effects present in piezoelectric materials that are transparent to a given optical wavelength to determine the internal stress and electric field. The combined effects of the piezoelectric, photoelastic, and electro-optic effects result in a time-dependent change the refractive indices of the material and produce an artificially induced, time-dependent birefringence in the piezoelectric material. This induced time-dependent birefringence results in a change in the relative phase difference between the ordinary and extraordinary wave components of a helium-neon laser beam. The change in phase difference between the wave components was measured using a set of linear polarizers. The measured change in phase difference was used to calculate the stress and electric field based on the nonlinear optical properties, the piezoelectric constitutive equations, and the boundary conditions of the PT. Maximum stresses of approximately 10 MPa and electric fields of as high as 6 kV/cm were measured with the optical diagnostic. Measured results were compared to results from both a simple one-dimensional (1D) model of the piezoelectric transformer and a three-dimensional (3D) finite element model. Measured stresses and electric fields along the length of an operating length-extensional PT for two different electrical loads were within at least 50 % of 3D finite element simulated results. Additionally, the 3D finite element results were more accurate than the results from the 1D model for a wider range of electrical load impedances under test.

An electrooptic probe to determine internal electric fields in a piezoelectric transformer.

A technique using the electrooptic effect to determine the output voltage of an optically clear LiNbO(3) piezoelectric transformer was developed and explored. A brief mathematical description of the solution is provided, as well as experimental data demonstrating a linear response under ac resonant operating conditions. A technique to calibrate the diagnostic was developed and is described. Finally, a sensitivity analysis of the electrooptic response to variations in angular alignment between the LiNbO(3) transformer and the laser probe are discussed.

Electrical parameters of projectile stun guns.

Projectile stun guns have been developed as less-lethal devices that law enforcement officers can use to control potentially violent subjects, as an alternative to using firearms. These devices apply high voltage, low amperage, pulsatile electric shocks to the subject, which causes involuntary skeletal muscle contraction and renders the subject unable to further resist. In field use of these devices, the electric shock is often applied to the thorax, which raises the issue of cardiac safety of these devices. An important determinant of the cardiac safety of these devices is their electrical output. Here the outputs of three commercially available projectile stun guns were evaluated with a resistive load and in a human-sized animal model (a 72 kg pig).