Dose-Dense Chemotherapy Regimen for Breast Cancer Associated with Significant Decline in Ovarian Reserve.

Purpose: To determine the impact of dose-dense chemotherapy administration on ovarian reserve in women undergoing treatment for breast cancer. Patients and Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of reproductive age women who underwent dose-dense chemotherapy regimens with doxorubicin hydrochloride and cyclophosphamide with or without paclitaxel for a new diagnosis of breast cancer. We compared pre- and post-treatment serum antimullerian hormone (AMH) levels and assessed changes in AMH over time. Results: Fifty-seven patients met inclusion criteria. Median pre-treatment AMH was 2.9 ng/mL, whereas post-treatment AMH was 0.1 ng/mL, demonstrating a dramatic reduction in AMH levels after treatment with a dose-dense regimen. This change was independent of age and was sustained over 12 months from treatment completion. Conclusions: Dose-dense chemotherapy regimens for breast cancer lead to marked and sustained decreases in AMH irrespective of patient age.

Oral, vaginal or intramuscular progesterone in programmed frozen embryo transfer cycles: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

RESEARCH QUESTION: What should be the optimal route of luteal support in programmed frozen embryo transfer (FET) cycles? DESIGN: This was a randomized, parallel, phase IV pilot trial with three groups of women undergoing FET along with hormone replacement therapy for endometrial preparation at a tertiary private IVF centre (NCT03948022). Women with at least one autologous cryopreserved blastocyst were included. After preparing the endometrium with oestradiol, 151 women were randomly assigned to one of the following three progesterone arms before embryo transfer: oral (10 mg) dydrogesterone (DYD), total daily dose 40 mg (n = 52); 8% (90 mg) progesterone vaginal gel (VAG), total daily dose 180 mg (n = 55); or intramuscular progesterone (IMP) 50 mg/ml in oil, total daily dose 100 mg (n = 44). One or two vitrified-warmed blastocysts were transferred after 5 days' progesterone support. RESULTS: Baseline demographic features and embryological data were comparable among the groups. Ongoing pregnancy rates (40.4%, 38.2% and 45.5% in the DYD, VAG and IMP arms; P = 0.76) and live birth rates (40.4%, 38.2% and 43.2% in the DYD, VAG and IMP arms, P = 0.61) were statistically similar. Biochemical pregnancy rates and clinical miscarriage rates were also statistically similar among the groups. Significantly more patients with at least one side effect and moderate-to-severe side effects were documented in the IMP arm than the other groups (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with 40 mg/day oral DYD, 180 mg/day progesterone VAG gel or 100 mg/day IMP revealed similar reproductive outcomes in programmed FET cycles. Side effects were significantly more frequent in the IMP arm.

New Crosslinked Hyaluronan Gel, Intrauterine Device, or Both for the Prevention of Intrauterine Adhesions.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To compare the efficacy of 3 different techniques for prevention of adhesion reformation after hysteroscopic adhesiolysis in patients with moderate-to-severe intrauterine adhesions. Short-term assisted reproductive outcomes were also compared. STUDY DESIGN: Total of 72 cases were randomized to Lippes loop intrauterine device (IUD) only, IUD plus a new crosslinked hyaluronan (NCH) gel, or NCH gel only following hysteroscopic adhesiolysis. All cases received hormonal therapy and a second hysteroscopy was carried out. Endometrial thickness values were measured using transvaginal ultrasonography and American Fertility Society adhesion scores were noted during first and second hysteroscopy in all groups. Reproductive outcomes were also compared for those who received in vitro fertilization treatment. RESULTS: Transvaginal ultrasonography revealed significantly better endometrial thickness in the IUD+NCH (7.5 mm) and NCH-only groups (6.5 mm) than the IUD-only group (5 mm) (P < .001). All groups revealed enhanced but comparable American Fertility Society adhesion scores on second-look hysteroscopy. A total of 37 patients received in vitro fertilization treatment after surgical management of adhesions. Ongoing pregnancy rates after in vitro fertilization were 27%, 40%, and 36% in IUD, IUD+NCH, and NCH groups, respectively. However, the difference between the groups did not reach statistically significant difference. CONCLUSION: All interventions are of similar efficacy in the prevention of adhesion reformation after hysteroscopic adhesiolysis for moderate to severe intrauterine adhesions. However, better endometrial thickness values were observed in those who received NCH gel either alone or in combination with IUD. Assisted reproductive outcomes of both groups were comparable for ongoing pregnancy rates.

Successful yolk-sac tumor treatment with fertility-sparing partial oophorectomy.

Yolk-sac tumors account for about 20% of ovarian germ cell tumors and occur predominantly in women below 35 years of age. Modern evidence-based treatment strategies have ensured long term post-treatment survival, but with increased survival, attention has been turned to an urgent need for developing fertility sparing treatment strategies. In this report we describe the successful treatment of a young woman who was able to conceive and deliver two children, in spite of the loss of one ovary two years prior to being diagnosed with an ovarian yolk-sac tumor on the remaining ovary.

WNK lysine deficient protein kinase 1 regulates human endometrial stromal cell decidualization, proliferation, and migration in part through mitogen-activated protein kinase 7.

The differentiation of endometrial stromal cells into decidual cells, termed decidualization, is an integral step in the establishment of pregnancy. The mitogen-activated protein kinase homolog, WNK lysine deficient protein kinase 1 (WNK1), is activated downstream of epidermal growth factor receptor during decidualization. Primary human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs) were subjected to small interfering RNA knockdown of WNK1 followed by in vitro decidualization. This abrogated expression of the decidual marker genes, insulin like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) and prolactin (PRL), and prevented adoption of decidual cell morphology. Analysis of the WNK1-dependent transcriptome by RNA-Seq demonstrated that WNK1 regulates the expression of 1858 genes during decidualization. Gene ontology and upstream regulator pathway analysis showed that WNK1 regulates cell migration, differentiation, and proliferation. WNK1 was required for many of the gene expression changes that drive decidualization, including the induction of the inflammatory cytokines, C-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CCL8), interleukin 1 beta (IL1B), and interleukin 15 (IL15), and the repression of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) pathway genes, including early growth response 2 (EGR2), SMAD family member 3 (SMAD3), integrin subunit alpha 2 (ITGA2), integrin subunit alpha 4 (ITGA4), and integrin subunit beta 3 (ITGB3). In addition to abrogating decidualization, WNK1 knockdown decreased the migration and proliferation of HESCs. Furthermore, mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7), a known downstream target of WNK1, was activated during decidualization in a WNK1-dependent manner. Small interfering RNA knockdown of MAPK7 demonstrated that MAPK7 regulates a subset of WNK1-regulated genes and controls the migration and proliferation of HESCs. These results indicate that WNK1 and MAPK7 promote migration and proliferation during decidualization and regulate the expression of inflammatory cytokines and TGF-beta pathway genes in HESCs.

Antimullerian hormone levels are inversely associated with body mass index (BMI) in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this paper is to determine whether antimullerian hormone (AMH) levels were associated with BMI in patients with diagnosed infertility, and more specifically, in patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). METHODS: A retrospective cohort study reviewed all females who presented to the clinical investigators' practice between November 2011 and March 2013. The following data was retrieved from the medical record: (1) AMH level, (2) age, (3) BMI, (4) ethnicity, and (5) if infertile, etiology of infertility. RESULTS: AMH levels were available for 489 women. Of these, 104 were diagnosed with PCOS. Overall, there was no association between BMI and AMH (r -0.04, p > 0.05). On the other hand, in the women with PCOS, there was a significant association between BMI and AMH (r -0.31, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: BMI was not associated with AMH levels in the general population of infertile women or in patients without PCOS. However, BMI appeared to be significantly and inversely correlated with AMH in women with PCOS.

Genetics of premature ovarian failure.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To provide an overview on the genetic basis of premature ovarian failure (POF) with specific attention to recently published molecular genetic studies. RECENT FINDINGS: POF is an insidious cause of female infertility. Despite enormous efforts to understand the genetic pathogenesis, we know almost nothing but Turner syndrome and Fragile X syndrome. The era of genome-wide association studies opened a new window into the understanding of the complex, polygenic nature of ovarian failure by identifying several candidate regions. Most of the genes in these regions are waiting for confirmation in isolated POF cohorts. Recently, molecular evidence on the regulatory role of small noncoding RNAs in folliculogenesis and oocyte development began to emerge. The association between certain microRNA polymorphisms and POF has been reported. SUMMARY: Although there exist numerous candidate genes in the literature, a few of them have comprehensive and consistent molecular workup that showed strong genotype/phenotype association.

Progesterone receptor transcriptome and cistrome in decidualized human endometrial stromal cells.

Decidualization is a complex process involving cellular proliferation and differentiation of the endometrial stroma that is required to establish and support pregnancy. Progesterone acting via its nuclear receptor, the progesterone receptor (PGR), is a critical regulator of decidualization and is known to interact with certain members of the activator protein-1 (AP-1) family in the regulation of transcription. In this study, we identified the cistrome and transcriptome of PGR and identified the AP-1 factors FOSL2 and JUN to be regulated by PGR and important in the decidualization process. Direct targets of PGR were identified by integrating gene expression data from RNA sequencing with the whole-genome binding profile of PGR determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-seq) in primary human endometrial stromal cells exposed to 17ß-estradiol, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and cAMP to promote in vitro decidualization. Ablation of FOSL2 and JUN attenuates the induction of 2 decidual marker genes, IGFBP1 and PRL. ChIP-seq analysis of genomic binding revealed that FOSL2 is bound in proximity to 8586 distinct genes, including nearly 80% of genes bound by PGR. A comprehensive assessment of the PGR-dependent decidual transcriptome integrated with the genomic binding of PGR identified FOSL2 as a potentially important transcriptional coregulator of PGR via direct interaction with regulatory regions of genes actively regulated during decidualization.

Premature ovarian failure: clinical presentation and treatment.

Premature ovarian failure is a devastating diagnosis for reproductive-aged women. The diagnosis is relatively easy. However, it has serious health consequences, including psychological distress, infertility, osteoporosis, autoimmune disorders, ischemic heart disease, and increased risk for mortality. Management should be initiated immediately to prevent long-term consequences. Estrogen therapy is the mainstay of management. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy studies should not be used to determine the risks of treatment in these young women.

FOXO1 is required for binding of PR on IRF4, novel transcriptional regulator of endometrial stromal decidualization.

The forkhead box O1A (FOXO1) is an early-induced target of the protein kinase A pathway during the decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs). In this study we identified the cistrome and transcriptome of FOXO1 and its role as a transcriptional regulator of the progesterone receptor (PR). Direct targets of FOXO1 were identified by integrating RNA sequencing with chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that FOXO1 regulates a subset of genes in decidualization such as those involved in cancer, p53 signaling, focal adhesions, and Wnt signaling. An overlap of the FOXO1 and PR chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing intervals revealed the co-occupancy of FOXO1 in more than 75% of PR binding intervals. Among these intervals were highly enriched motifs for the interferon regulatory factor member 4 (IRF4). IRF4 was determined to be a genomic target of both FOXO1 and PR and also to be differentially regulated in HESCs treated with small interfering RNA targeting FOXO1 or PR prior to decidualization stimulus. Ablation of FOXO1 was found to abolish binding of PR to the shared binding interval downstream of the IRF4 gene. Finally, small interfering RNA-mediated ablation of IRF4 was shown to compromise morphological transformation of decidualized HESCs and to attenuate the expression of the decidual markers IGFBP1, PRL, and WNT4. These results provide the first evidence that FOXO1 is functionally required for the binding of PR to genomic targets. Most notably, FOXO1 and PR are required for the regulation of IRF4, a novel transcriptional regulator of decidualization in HESCs.

The epidermal growth factor receptor critically regulates endometrial function during early pregnancy.

Infertility and adverse gynecological outcomes such as preeclampsia and miscarriage represent significant female reproductive health concerns. The spatiotemporal expression of growth factors indicates that they play an important role in pregnancy. The goal of this study is to define the role of the ERBB family of growth factor receptors in endometrial function. Using conditional ablation in mice and siRNA in primary human endometrial stromal cells, we identified the epidermal growth factor receptor (Egfr) to be critical for endometrial function during early pregnancy. While ablation of Her2 or Erbb3 led to only a modest reduction in litter size, mice lacking Egfr expression are severely subfertile. Pregnancy demise occurred shortly after blastocyst implantation due to defects in decidualization including decreased proliferation, cell survival, differentiation and target gene expression. To place Egfr in a genetic regulatory hierarchy, transcriptome analyses was used to compare the gene signatures from mice with conditional ablation of Egfr, wingless-related MMTV integration site 4 (Wnt4) or boneless morphogenic protein 2 (Bmp2); revealing that not only are Bmp2 and Wnt4 key downstream effectors of Egfr, but they also regulate distinct physiological functions. In primary human endometrial stromal cells, marker gene expression, a novel high content image-based approach and phosphokinase array analysis were used to demonstrate that EGFR is a critical regulator of human decidualization. Furthermore, inhibition of EGFR signaling intermediaries WNK1 and AKT1S1, members identified in the kinase array and previously unreported to play a role in the endometrium, also attenuate decidualization. These results demonstrate that EGFR plays an integral role in establishing the cellular context necessary for successful pregnancy via the activation of intricate signaling and transcriptional networks, thereby providing valuable insight into potential therapeutic targets.

A murine uterine transcriptome, responsive to steroid receptor coactivator-2, reveals transcription factor 23 as essential for decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells.

Recent data from human and mouse studies strongly support an indispensable role for steroid receptor coactivator-2 (SRC-2)-a member of the p160/SRC family of coregulators-in progesterone-dependent endometrial stromal cell decidualization, an essential cellular transformation process that regulates invasion of the developing embryo into the maternal compartment. To identify the key progesterone-induced transcriptional changes that are dependent on SRC-2 and required for endometrial decidualization, we performed comparative genome-wide transcriptional profiling of endometrial tissue RNA from ovariectomized SRC-2(flox/flox) (SRC-2(f/f) [control]) and PR(cre/+)/SRC-2(flox/flox) (SRC-2(d/d) [SRC-2-depleted]) mice, acutely treated with vehicle or progesterone. Although data mining revealed that only a small subset of the total progesterone-dependent transcriptional changes is dependent on SRC-2 (∼13%), key genes previously reported to mediate progesterone-driven endometrial stromal cell decidualization are present within this subset. Along with providing a more detailed molecular portrait of the decidual transcriptional program governed by SRC-2, the degree of functional diversity of these progesterone mediators underscores the pleiotropic regulatory role of SRC-2 in this tissue. To showcase the utility of this powerful informational resource to uncover novel signaling paradigms, we stratified the total SRC-2-dependent subset of progesterone-induced transcriptional changes in terms of novel gene expression and identified transcription factor 23 (Tcf23), a basic-helix-loop-helix transcription factor, as a new progesterone-induced target gene that requires SRC-2 for full induction. Importantly, using primary human endometrial stromal cells in culture, we demonstrate that TCF23 function is essential for progesterone-dependent decidualization, providing crucial translational support for this transcription factor as a new decidual mediator of progesterone action.

Activin-like kinase 2 functions in peri-implantation uterine signaling in mice and humans.

Implantation of a blastocyst in the uterus is a multistep process tightly controlled by an intricate regulatory network of interconnected ovarian, uterine, and embryonic factors. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) ligands and receptors are expressed in the uterus of pregnant mice, and BMP2 has been shown to be a key regulator of implantation. In this study, we investigated the roles of the BMP type 1 receptor, activin-like kinase 2 (ALK2), during mouse pregnancy by producing mice carrying a conditional ablation of Alk2 in the uterus (Alk2 cKO mice). In the absence of ALK2, embryos demonstrate delayed invasion into the uterine epithelium and stroma, and upon implantation, stromal cells fail to undergo uterine decidualization, resulting in sterility. Mechanistically, microarray analysis revealed that CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ß (Cebpb) expression is suppressed during decidualization in Alk2 cKO females. These findings and the similar phenotypes of Cebpb cKO and Alk2 cKO mice lead to the hypothesis that BMPs act upstream of CEBPB in the stroma to regulate decidualization. To test this hypothesis, we knocked down ALK2 in human uterine stromal cells (hESC) and discovered that ablation of ALK2 alters hESC decidualization and suppresses CEBPB mRNA and protein levels. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis of decidualizing hESC confirmed that BMP signaling proteins, SMAD1/5, directly regulate expression of CEBPB by binding a distinct regulatory sequence in the 3' UTR of this gene; CEBPB, in turn, regulates the expression of progesterone receptor (PGR). Our work clarifies the conserved mechanisms through which BMPs regulate peri-implantation in rodents and primates and, for the first time, uncovers a linear pathway of BMP signaling through ALK2 to regulate CEBPB and, subsequently, PGR during decidualization.

Acceleration of the glycolytic flux by steroid receptor coactivator-2 is essential for endometrial decidualization.

Early embryo miscarriage is linked to inadequate endometrial decidualization, a cellular transformation process that enables deep blastocyst invasion into the maternal compartment. Although much of the cellular events that underpin endometrial stromal cell (ESC) decidualization are well recognized, the individual gene(s) and molecular pathways that drive the initiation and progression of this process remain elusive. Using a genetic mouse model and a primary human ESC culture model, we demonstrate that steroid receptor coactivator-2 (SRC-2) is indispensable for rapid steroid hormone-dependent proliferation of ESCs, a critical cell-division step which precedes ESC terminal differentiation into decidual cells. We reveal that SRC-2 is required for increasing the glycolytic flux in human ESCs, which enables rapid proliferation to occur during the early stages of the decidualization program. Specifically, SRC-2 increases the glycolytic flux through induction of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2, 6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3), a major rate-limiting glycolytic enzyme. Similarly, acute treatment of mice with a small molecule inhibitor of PFKFB3 significantly suppressed the ability of these animals to exhibit an endometrial decidual response. Together, these data strongly support a conserved mechanism of action by which SRC-2 accelerates the glycolytic flux through PFKFB3 induction to provide the necessary bioenergy and biomass to meet the demands of a high proliferation rate observed in ESCs prior to their differentiation into decidual cells. Because deregulation of endometrial SRC-2 expression has been associated with common gynecological disorders of reproductive-age women, this signaling pathway, involving SRC-2 and PFKFB3, promises to offer new clinical approaches in the diagnosis and/or treatment of a non-receptive uterus in patients presenting idiopathic infertility, recurrent early pregnancy loss, or increased time to pregnancy.

Liver receptor homolog-1 is essential for pregnancy.

Successful pregnancy requires coordination of an array of signals and factors from multiple tissues. One such element, liver receptor homolog-1 (Lrh-1), is an orphan nuclear receptor that regulates metabolism and hormone synthesis. It is strongly expressed in granulosa cells of ovarian follicles and in the corpus luteum of rodents and humans. Germline ablation of Nr5a2 (also called Lrh-1), the gene coding for Lrh-1, in mice is embryonically lethal at gastrulation. Depletion of Lrh-1 in the ovarian follicle shows that it regulates genes required for both steroid synthesis and ovulation. To study the effects of Lrh-1 on mouse gestation, we genetically disrupted its expression in the corpus luteum, resulting in luteal insufficiency. Hormone replacement permitted embryo implantation but was followed by gestational failure with impaired endometrial decidualization, compromised placental formation, fetal growth retardation and fetal death. Lrh-1 is also expressed in the mouse and human endometrium, and in a primary culture of human endometrial stromal cells, reduction of NR5A2 transcript abundance by RNA interference abrogated decidualization. These findings show that Lrh-1 is necessary for maintenance of the corpus luteum, for promotion of decidualization and for formation of the placenta. It therefore has multiple, indispensible roles in establishing and sustaining pregnancy.

A new isoform of steroid receptor coactivator-1 is crucial for pathogenic progression of endometriosis.

Endometriosis is considered to be an estrogen-dependent inflammatory disease, but its etiology is unclear. Thus far, a mechanistic role for steroid receptor coactivators (SRCs) in the progression of endometriosis has not been elucidated. An SRC-1-null mouse model reveals that the mouse SRC-1 gene has an essential role in endometriosis progression. Notably, a previously unidentified 70-kDa SRC-1 proteolytic isoform is highly elevated both in the endometriotic tissue of mice with surgically induced endometriosis and in endometriotic stromal cells biopsied from patients with endometriosis compared to normal endometrium. Tnf⁻/⁻ and Mmp9⁻/⁻ mice with surgically induced endometriosis showed that activation of tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-α)-induced matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) activity mediates formation of the 70-kDa SRC-1 C-terminal isoform in endometriotic mouse tissue. In contrast to full-length SRC-1, the endometriotic 70-kDa SRC-1 C-terminal fragment prevents TNF-α-mediated apoptosis in human endometrial epithelial cells and causes the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and the invasion of human endometrial cells that are hallmarks of progressive endometriosis. Collectively, the newly identified TNF-α-MMP9-SRC-1 isoform functional axis promotes pathogenic progression of endometriosis.

Genomic analysis using high-resolution single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays reveals novel microdeletions associated with premature ovarian failure.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze DNA from women with premature ovarian failure (POF) for genome-wide copy-number variations (CNVs), focusing on novel autosomal microdeletions. DESIGN: Case-control genetic association study. SETTING: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas. PATIENT(S): Of 89 POF patients, eight experienced primary amenorrhea and 81 exhibited secondary amenorrhea before age 40 years. INTERVENTION(S): Genomic DNA from peripheral blood samples was analyzed for CNVs using high-resolution single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Identification of novel CNVs in 89 POF cases, using the Database of Genomic Variants as a control population. RESULT(S): A total of 198 autosomal CNVs were detected by SNP arrays, ranging in size from 0.1 Mb to 3.4 Mb. These CNVs (>0.1 Mb) included 17 novel microduplications and seven novel microdeletions, six of which contained the coding regions 8q24.13, 10p15-p14, 10q23.31, 10q26.3, 15q25.2, and 18q21.32. Most of the novel CNVs were derived from autosomes rather than the X chromosome. CONCLUSION(S): The present pilot study revealed novel microdeletions/microduplications in women with POF. Two novel microdeletions caused haploinsufficiency for SYCE1 and CPEB1, genes known to cause ovarian failure in knockout mouse models. Chromosomal microarrays may be a useful adjunct to conventional karyotyping when evaluating genomic imbalances in women with POF.

A meta-analysis of the relationship between endometrial thickness and outcome of in vitro fertilization cycles.

OBJECTIVE: The objective was to evaluate the relationship between endometrial thickness on the day of human chorionic gonadotropin administration and pregnancy outcome in in vitro fertilization cycles. DESIGN: This was a systematic review and meta-analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified 484 articles using Cochrane library, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase searches with various key words including endometrial thickness, pregnancy, assisted reproductive technology, endometrial pattern, and in vitro fertilization. A total of 14 studies with data on endometrial thickness and outcome were selected, representing 4922 cycles (2204 pregnant and 2718 nonpregnant). The meta-analysis with a random effects model was performed using comprehensive meta-analysis software. We calculated the standardized mean difference, odds ratio (OR), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: There was a significant difference in the mean endometrial thickness between pregnant and nonpregnant groups (P<0.001), with a standardized mean difference of 0.4 mm (95% CI 0.22-0.58). The OR for pregnancy was 1.40 (95% CI 1.24-1.58). CONCLUSIONS: The mean endometrial thickness was significantly higher in pregnant women compared to nonpregnant. The mean difference between two groups was <1 mm which may not be clinically meaningful. Although there may be a relationship between endometrial thickness and pregnancy, implantation potential is probably more complex than a single ultrasound measurement can determine.

Blood pressure regulation across pregnancy: evidence of a paradigm shift in gene expression.

OBJECTIVES: The authors aimed to provide evidence for a major gene effect on blood pressure across normal pregnancy. METHODS: Blood pressure measurements from 265 patients of Mexican descent derived from medical records were grouped into 4-week blocks by gestational age. Analyses of normality in the distribution of measurements for each block were applied to determine the emergence of a major gene effect and identify the gestational age at which that occurs. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were used to determine median and percentile values for each block. RESULTS: There was a shift from normal to non-normal distribution in systolic blood pressure between 12 and 15 weeks' gestation. This was similar for diastolic blood pressure. Median blood pressure values increased from 10 to 40 weeks' gestation without evidence of a decline during the second trimester of pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Genetic regulation of blood pressure across pregnancy is dynamic, as demonstrated by the emergence of a major gene effect beginning around 12 weeks' gestation.